Transfer of Skills and Memory Models Revision Notes
Subject: Physical Education | Level: A-Level | Exam Board: Edexcel
This guide provides a comprehensive breakdown of Transfer of Skills and Memory Models for A-Level PE (Edexcel 4.2). It explores how prior learning impacts skill acquisition and examines the cognitive frameworks, like the Multi-Store and Levels of Processing models, that govern memory in sport.
Revision Notes & Key Concepts
## Overview
Welcome to your deep dive into Topic 4.2: Transfer of Skills and Memory Models. This is a critical area of the A-Level PE specification, blending cognitive psychology with practical sporting performance. A strong grasp of this topic is essential for high marks, as it underpins how athletes learn, adapt, and perform under pressure. Examiners frequently target this area in both short-answer and extended-response questions, making it a high-value revision priority. This guide will equip you with the theoretical knowledge (AO1), practical application skills (AO2), and analytical evaluation techniques (AO3) needed to excel.
## Key Knowledge & Theory
### Core Concepts
**Transfer of Learning**
Transfer of learning examines the influence of one learned skill on the performance or learning of another. This influence can be positive, negative, or neutral. The ability to identify and manage transfer is a hallmark of effective coaching.
* **Positive Transfer**: Occurs when a previously learned skill facilitates the learning of a new skill. This is most common when skills share similar movement patterns, cognitive processes, or environmental cues. For example, the overarm throwing action learned in cricket positively transfers to the javelin throw.
* **Negative Transfer**: Occurs when a previously learned skill hinders the learning of a new skill. This often happens when skills appear similar but have fundamentally different technical requirements. For instance, the wrist action in badminton (flexion) negatively interferes with the firm wrist required for a tennis volley.
* **Zero Transfer**: Occurs when two skills are entirely unrelated, meaning the learning of one has no impact on the other (e.g., swimming and chess).
* **Bilateral Transfer**: This is transfer from one limb to another. For example, a footballer learning to pass with their non-dominant foot after mastering it with their dominant foot.
**Inhibition**
Inhibition is a form of negative transfer where one memory trace disrupts another. It's crucial to distinguish between proactive and retroactive inhibition.
* **Proactive Inhibition**: An old memory trace interferes with a new one. (Pro = forward-acting). Example: A hockey player who has used a specific penalty corner routine for years struggles to remember a new routine.
* **Retroactive Inhibition**: A new memory trace interferes with an old one. (Retro = backward-acting). Example: After learning a new, more complex golf swing, a player finds it difficult to recall their old, simpler swing.
**Memory Models**
Memory is the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Two key models are examined.
1. **The Multi-Store Memory Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)**: This is a linear model proposing that memory consists of three distinct stores.
* **Sensory Register**: The initial point of contact for all sensory information. It has a vast capacity but a very brief duration (less than a second). Information is lost unless it captures our **selective attention**.
* **Short-Term Memory (STM)**: The 'working memory'. It has a limited capacity of 7 +/- 2 items and a duration of up to 30 seconds without rehearsal. Information is kept in STM via maintenance rehearsal (repetition) and is lost through displacement or trace decay.
* **Long-Term Memory (LTM)**: The permanent store for information. It has an unlimited capacity and duration. Information is transferred from STM to LTM via encoding and elaborative rehearsal.
2. **The Levels of Processing Model (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)**: This model argues that memory is not about stores, but about the depth at which information is processed. The deeper the processing, the stronger and more durable the memory trace.
* **Shallow Processing**: Structural (what it looks like) or phonetic (what it sounds like). Leads to weak memory traces.
* **Deep (Semantic) Processing**: Considering the meaning of the information and linking it to existing knowledge. This leads to strong, lasting memory traces.
### Key Practitioners/Artists/Composers
| Name | Period/Style | Key Works | Relevance |
| --------------------- | ----------------- | --------------------------------------------- | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| Atkinson & Shiffrin | 1968, Cognitive | Multi-Store Memory Model | Provided the foundational, structural model of memory, introducing the concept of distinct storage units. |
| Craik & Lockhart | 1972, Cognitive | Levels of Processing Model | Challenged the structural view, arguing that the depth of processing is key to long-term memory formation. |
| Baddeley & Hitch | 1974, Cognitive | Working Memory Model | Offered a more detailed and accurate model of Short-Term Memory, crucial for evaluating the MSM. |
| George A. Miller | 1956, Cognitive | 'The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two' | Quantified the limited capacity of Short-Term Memory, a core component of the Multi-Store Model. |
### Technical Vocabulary
* **Selective Attention**: The process of focusing on a particular stimulus in the environment while ignoring others.
* **Encoding**: The process of converting information into a construct that can be stored in memory.
* **Retrieval**: The process of getting information out of memory storage.
* **Trace Decay**: The gradual fading of a memory trace over time.
* **Chunking**: Grouping separate pieces of information into a single larger unit to increase STM capacity.
* **Elaborative Rehearsal**: Linking new information to existing knowledge in a meaningful way to enhance encoding.
## Practical Skills
### Techniques & Processes
**Optimising Positive Transfer**
Coaches can maximise positive transfer by:
1. **Highlighting Similarities**: Explicitly pointing out the common elements between the old and new skill.
2. **Using Analogy**: Comparing the new skill to a well-learned one (e.g., 'swing the golf club like a pendulum').
3. **Variable Practice**: Practicing a skill in a wide variety of situations to build a robust schema.
**Mitigating Negative Transfer (The DCR Approach)**
Examiners credit the use of the DCR model:
1. **Detect**: The coach identifies the specific point of negative transfer (e.g., the wrist action).
2. **Compare**: The coach explains the difference between the old and new technique.
3. **Remedy**: The coach implements drills to isolate and correct the faulty part of the new skill, ensuring the new motor programme is established.
**Applying Memory Models to Coaching**
* **Multi-Store Model Application**: Coaches must ensure instructions are concise (to fit STM capacity), grab the athlete's selective attention, and incorporate repetition (rehearsal) to aid encoding.
* **Levels of Processing Application**: Coaches should move beyond simple instructions and ask 'why' questions. Forcing an athlete to explain the biomechanical principles behind a technique encourages deep, semantic processing.
## Exam Component
### Written Exam Knowledge
This topic is a staple of the written paper. You can expect:
* **AO1 Questions**: Define terms like 'proactive inhibition' or describe the components of the Multi-Store Model.
* **AO2 Questions**: Apply your knowledge to a given sporting scenario. E.g., 'Using a sporting example, explain how a coach could limit the effects of negative transfer.'
* **AO3 Questions**: Evaluate the models. E.g., 'Critically evaluate the Multi-Store Memory Model, making reference to an alternative model.' This is where you bring in the Levels of Processing or Working Memory models to highlight the MSM's limitations.
For 8 or 15-mark questions, a structured approach is vital. Each paragraph should ideally contain AO1 (knowledge), AO2 (application), and AO3 (evaluation) to ensure you are hitting all assessment objectives throughout your response.
Key Terms & Definitions
- Transfer of Learning
- The influence that learning one skill has on the learning or performance of another.
- Selective Attention
- The cognitive process of focusing on a specific stimulus while filtering out other distracting stimuli.
- Short-Term Memory (STM)
- A memory store with a limited capacity (7+/-2 items) and brief duration (<30s) where information is consciously processed.
- Long-Term Memory (LTM)
- A memory store with potentially unlimited capacity and duration, holding information and motor programmes permanently.
- Levels of Processing
- A model of memory that proposes that the depth of mental processing determines the strength of the memory trace.
- Schema
- A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information, built up through experience.
Worked Examples
Worked Example
Question: Using a sporting example, explain the difference between proactive and retroactive inhibition. (4 marks)
Solution: Proactive inhibition is when a previously learned skill interferes with the recall of a newly learned skill. For example, a basketball player who has extensively practiced an old set-play may struggle to remember the new set-play during a match, defaulting to the old one under pressure. The old memory trace proactively disrupts the new one.
Retroactive inhibition is when learning a new skill interferes with the recall of a previously learned skill. For example, a tennis player who has spent a month learning a new serving technique may find it difficult to perform their old serve when asked to demonstrate it. The new memory trace retroactively disrupts the old one.
Worked Example
Question: A coach is trying to teach a novice trampolinist a complex routine. Using the multi-store memory model, explain three strategies the coach could use to ensure the routine is stored in long-term memory. (6 marks)
Solution: 1. **Chunking**: The coach should break the complex routine down into smaller, manageable parts or chunks, such as the take-off, the tuck, and the landing. This prevents overloading the short-term memory, which has a limited capacity of 7+/-2 items.
2. **Rehearsal**: The coach should encourage the performer to physically and mentally repeat the chunks and then the whole sequence. This maintenance rehearsal keeps the information active in the short-term memory, increasing the likelihood of it being encoded into long-term memory.
3. **Making it Meaningful (Elaborative Rehearsal)**: The coach could use imagery or associate parts of the routine with keywords. This encourages deeper processing, which is more effective than simple repetition for creating a strong memory trace for transfer to the LTM.
Worked Example
Question: Critically evaluate the Levels of Processing model of memory. (8 marks)
Solution: The Levels of Processing (LOP) model, proposed by Craik and Lockhart, offers a valuable alternative to the structural Multi-Store Model (MSM). Its main strength is its focus on process over structure, correctly identifying that the meaningfulness of information is a key determinant of memory. This has practical applications for coaches, who can encourage deep, semantic processing by asking athletes 'why' a technique works, leading to more durable learning than simple maintenance rehearsal. For example, explaining the biomechanics of a shot put release creates a stronger memory trace than just repeating the action.
However, the model has significant limitations. Firstly, the concept of 'depth' is difficult to define and measure objectively, making the theory circular. It is impossible to prove that deep processing causes better recall; we can only observe that memorable information was likely processed deeply. This lack of empirical measurement is a key weakness.
Secondly, the model oversimplifies memory and ignores the role of retrieval. It suggests that encoding is the only factor, but we know that retrieval cues are vital for accessing information from LTM. The MSM, despite its flaws, at least acknowledges the process of retrieval from LTM back to STM.
Finally, the LOP model does not fully explain why some techniques, like a golf swing, require thousands of repetitions (a form of shallow processing) to become autonomous, even if the principles are understood semantically. This suggests that for motor skills, the role of rehearsal, as outlined in the MSM, is still highly relevant. In conclusion, while the LOP model provides useful insights for coaching, its theoretical weaknesses mean it is best seen as a complement to, rather than a replacement for, structural models like the MSM.
Practice Questions
Question: Identify the type of transfer occurring when a skilled basketball player learns netball. (1 mark)
Answer:
Question: Describe the capacity and duration of the short-term memory store according to Atkinson and Shiffrin. (2 marks)
Answer:
Question: Explain how a coach could use 'chunking' to teach a complex gymnastics sequence. (4 marks)
Answer:
Question: A national-level swimmer decides to take up water polo. Analyse the potential for both positive and negative transfer in this situation. (6 marks)
Answer:
