Bonding, structure, and the properties of matter

This topic explores how atoms interact to form chemical bonds—ionic, covalent, and metallic—and how these interactions determine the physical structure of materials. It connects the microscopic arrangement of electrons and nuclei to macroscopic properties such as melting point, electrical conductivity, and hardness. Students examine the three states of matter, the nature of giant lattices versus simple molecules, and the specific chemistry of carbon allotropes and nanoparticles.