Skills - Reading comprehension and reading critically: literal and inferential comprehension: understanding a word, phrase or sentence in context; exploring aspects of plot, characterisation, events and settings; distinguishing between what is stated explicitly and what is implied; explaining motivation, sequence of events, and the relationship between actions or events

The idea

This skill moves from surface meaning to deeper inference. First, understand the literal meaning of a word, phrase or sentence; then explore what it suggests in context. For example, Mr Birling's statement that 'a man has to mind his own business' literally advocates self-interest, but inferentially reveals a selfish capitalist ideology that Priestley critiques. Analyse plot, characterisation, events and settings, such as how the bleakness of Scrooge's counting house contrasts with the warmth of Fred's home to highlight different values. Distinguish what is stated explicitly from what is implied: Sheila's guilt is explicit ('I know I'm to blame'), whereas Gerald's reaction to the name Daisy Renton implies his connection and discomfort. Explain character motivation and trace the sequence of events, explaining how one action causes another.

What earns the marks

• Literal comprehension: accurately identify explicit information, such as a character's action or a setting detail, without adding interpretation.
• Inferential comprehension: deduce implied meanings from textual clues, such as tone, imagery or a symbolic object, and justify each deduction with a quotation or close reference.
• Exploration of plot, characterisation, events and settings: analyse how these elements develop and interact, for example how the Birling dining room's lighting and props reflect the family's exposed position.
• Explaining motivation, sequence and relationships: trace cause and effect between actions or events, and explain why characters act as they do, such as Lady Macbeth's persuasion leading to Duncan's murder.

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Retelling the plot without inference.

  Put it right: For every event, ask 'What does this suggest?' and support the answer with a quotation.

• Confusing what is stated with what is implied.

  Put it right: Underline explicit facts in one colour and inferred ideas in another when annotating; check whether the character actually says it or if it is suggested by their actions or tone.

• Confusing explicit statements with implied attitudes.

  Put it right: An explicit statement is directly voiced, like the Inspector's final warning of 'fire and blood and anguish'. An implied attitude is deduced from behaviour or tone, such as Mr Birling's initial dismissiveness implying his arrogance.

• Ignoring context when defining a word.

  Put it right: Read the whole sentence and paragraph before deciding on meaning, and consider the writer's purpose.

Exam tips

• Read the extract twice: first for literal understanding, then for inference. Annotate briefly with 'L' for literal and 'I' for inferred.
• When answering, use phrases like 'this suggests' or 'this implies' to show inferential thinking, and always link back to the question.
• For motivation and sequence questions, create a quick timeline of key events and note the cause of each action before writing.