The unification of Germany, c1840–71 - 1 Popular pressure and causes of…

The idea

In March 1848, revolutions broke out across the German states, beginning with mass demonstrations in Vienna and Berlin. Rulers responded with concessions: Metternich resigned, Frederick William IV promised a constitution and a united German parliament, and other princes appointed liberal ministries. The revolutions initially succeeded because rulers were unprepared, faced simultaneous unrest in multiple states, and feared the example of France. In the Austrian Empire, revolution in Vienna forced Metternich's resignation and promises of reform, while nationalist uprisings in Hungary, Bohemia and Italy challenged Habsburg rule, leading to the March laws in Hungary and the Prague uprising. The situation remained fluid as rulers regained confidence and divisions among revolutionaries emerged.

What earns the marks

• Describes the outbreak of revolution in March 1848, including key events in Vienna and Berlin.
• Explains the responses of German rulers, such as Metternich's resignation, Frederick William IV's concessions, and the appointment of liberal ministries.
• Analyses the reasons for the initial success of the revolutions, including ruler unpreparedness, simultaneous unrest, and the impact of the French example.
• Explains the situation in the Austrian Empire, including the Vienna revolution, Metternich's fall, and nationalist uprisings in Hungary, Bohemia and Italy.
• Assesses the extent to which the revolutions had achieved their aims by mid-1848, noting divisions among revolutionaries and the beginning of ruler recovery.

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Assuming that all German rulers responded in the same way.

  Put it right: Responses varied, with some granting constitutions and others using force, and the Austrian Empire faced distinct nationalist challenges.

• Confusing the initial success of the revolutions with long-term victory.

  Put it right: Initial concessions were often tactical, and rulers soon regained control, leading to the revolutions' eventual failure.

• Overlooking the multinational nature of the Austrian Empire.

  Put it right: Revolutions in Hungary, Bohemia and Italy were central to the crisis, not just events in Vienna.

Exam tips

• Use specific examples such as the March 1848 demonstrations in Vienna and Berlin, the resignation of Metternich, and the March laws in Hungary to support your analysis.
• Explain the reasons for initial success by linking ruler responses to the pressure of simultaneous unrest and the fear of revolution spreading from France.
• When discussing the Austrian Empire, distinguish between the revolution in Vienna and the nationalist uprisings in Hungary, Bohemia and Italy, and explain how they interacted.