The unification of Germany, c1840–71 - 1 Popular pressure and causes of…

The idea

The German Confederation, created in 1815, was a loose body of 39 states with a Diet at Frankfurt dominated by Austria. Austria's dominance rested on its size, the presidency of the Diet and conservative leadership under Metternich. Nationalism grew as some Germans wanted a single nation-state; the 1840 crisis, when France threatened the Rhine, prompted patriotic songs and calls for defence, but also exposed divisions. Liberalism grew among educated middle classes seeking constitutions, parliaments and civil rights. In Prussia, Frederick William IV became king in 1840; he was romantic and initially raised hopes of reform, but he resisted liberal constitutionalism and upheld royal authority. These political tensions helped create the pressures that led to revolution in 1848.

What earns the marks

• Describes the German Confederation as a loose association of 39 states established in 1815 with a Diet at Frankfurt, lacking central executive power.
• Explains Austria's dominance through its presidency of the Diet, its large multi-national empire and Metternich's conservative influence over German affairs.
• Explains the growth of nationalism, including the 1840 crisis when French claims to the Rhine provoked patriotic responses and demands for a united German defence.
• Explains the growth of liberalism among the educated middle classes, with demands for constitutions, representative assemblies, press freedom and legal equality.
• Explains Prussia under Frederick William IV, including his accession in 1840, early hopes of reform, and his later resistance to liberal constitutional change.
• Analyses how these political factors combined to create popular pressure and contribute to the causes of revolution by 1848.

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Treating the German Confederation as a unified German national state.

  Put it right by describing it as a loose confederation of sovereign states with a weak Diet.

• Assuming Austria dominated because it was ethnically German.

  Put it right by explaining its dominance came from size, the Diet presidency and conservative diplomacy.

• Believing Frederick William IV was a committed liberal reformer.

  Put it right by noting his early concessions and later opposition to a liberal constitution.

Exam tips

• Use specific evidence such as the 1840 Rhine crisis, the Frankfurt Diet and Frederick William IV's accession to support each political factor.
• Link each factor to the growth of popular pressure, rather than describing the Confederation, Austria, nationalism, liberalism and Prussia in isolation.
• When analysing causes, distinguish between long-term structures such as the Confederation and short-term triggers such as the 1840 crisis.