The making of modern Russia, 1855–1991 - 5 Gorbachev and the downfall of…

The idea

Gorbachev’s reforms split the reformist camp: radicals led by Yeltsin demanded faster democratisation and marketisation, while moderates feared chaos and favoured gradual change. Conservative opposition came from party apparatchiks, the military, KGB and industrial managers who saw glasnost and perestroika as threats to their power and the Soviet state. Gorbachev’s rivalry with Yeltsin grew as Yeltsin left the Communist Party, won election as Russian president in 1991 and challenged Gorbachev’s authority. In August 1991 conservatives attempted a coup against Gorbachev; it failed after popular resistance led by Yeltsin. The coup discredited the Communist Party, and its rule collapsed, leading to the USSR’s dissolution in December 1991.

What earns the marks

• Analyses conservative opposition: party apparatchiks, the nomenklatura, military and KGB leaders, and industrial managers who resisted glasnost, perestroika and the loss of Communist Party monopoly.
• Examines the conservatives’ attempted coup of August 1991: the State Committee on the State of Emergency, Gorbachev’s detention at Foros, Yeltsin’s resistance at the White House, and the coup’s failure.
• Assesses the downfall of Communist Party rule: the post-coup suspension of party activities, the banning of the party, the resignation of Gorbachev as General Secretary, and the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991.
• Evaluates the relative importance of these factors in explaining the collapse of Soviet communism, for example whether the coup was a cause or a catalyst.

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Treating the reformist camp as united.

  Put it right: Identify the radical–moderate split and show how it weakened Gorbachev’s position.

• Confusing the August 1991 coup with the October 1993 constitutional crisis.

  Put it right: Place the coup in 1991 and link it to the collapse of Communist Party rule, not to later Russian politics.

• Assuming the coup succeeded or that Gorbachev was overthrown by it.

  Put it right: The coup failed, but it fatally discredited the Communist Party and accelerated the USSR’s dissolution.

• Describing Yeltsin only as a reformer without explaining his institutional power base.

  Put it right: Note his election as Russian president and his use of that office to oppose both the coup and Gorbachev.

Exam tips

• Plan essays around the four clauses of the statement, ensuring each is addressed with specific evidence.
• Use precise dates and names: August 1991 coup, Yeltsin elected Russian president in June 1991, Communist Party suspended in August 1991 and banned in November 1991.
• When evaluating significance, compare factors explicitly rather than listing them; for example, weigh whether conservative opposition or Yeltsin’s rivalry was more decisive.
• Integrate interpretations of Gorbachev’s role, but support them with evidence from the period.