Approaches in Psychology Revision Notes
Subject: Psychology | Level: A-Level | Exam Board: AQA
The 'Approaches in Psychology' topic is the bedrock of AQA A-Level Psychology, exploring the different lenses through which psychologists explain human behaviour. Mastering these diverse perspectives, from the observable actions of Behaviourism to the unconscious drives of the Psychodynamic approach, is essential for building the analytical and comparative skills needed to excel in the exam.
Revision Notes & Key Concepts
Revision Podcast Transcript
# AQA A-Level Psychology: Approaches in Psychology - Podcast Script **(Intro Music Fades In and Out)** **Host:** Hello and welcome to the AQA A-Level Psychology revision podcast. I’m your host, and today we’re tackling one of the absolute cornerstone topics of your entire A-Level: the Approaches in Psychology. Getting a firm grip on these different perspectives isn’t just crucial for one exam question; it’s the lens through which you’ll view almost every other topic, from psychopathology to relationships. We’ll break down the seven key approaches, give you some high-yield exam tips, and finish with a quick-fire quiz to make sure it’s all sinking in. Let’s get started. **(Short musical sting)** **Host:** So, where did it all begin? With Wilhelm Wundt, in Germany, 1879. He opened the very first psychology lab, moving the study of the mind from philosophical roots to a more structured, scientific footing. His method was **Introspection**, or ‘looking into’. He’d get trained participants to reflect on their own cognitive processes when presented with a stimulus, like a metronome. While it was criticised for being too subjective, Wundt’s work paved the way for more rigorous methods. For the exam, you don’t need to evaluate him in depth, but you must know his role as the starting point of psychology as a science. Next, came the **Behaviourists**, who rejected introspection entirely. They argued that if you can’t see it or measure it, it’s not science. So, they focused only on observable behaviour. Pavlov gave us **Classical Conditioning** – learning by association. Remember his dogs, who learned to associate the sound of a bell with food and would salivate at the bell alone. Then Skinner gave us **Operant Conditioning** – learning through consequences. A rat in a Skinner box learns that pressing a lever results in a food pellet – that’s positive reinforcement. Or it learns that pressing the lever stops an electric shock – that’s negative reinforcement. It’s all about how our environment shapes us. But what about the bit between the stimulus and the response? Albert Bandura’s **Social Learning Theory** provided the bridge. He agreed we learn from our environment, but he argued we also learn indirectly, by observing others. His famous Bobo Doll study showed that children who watched an adult behave aggressively towards a doll were more likely to imitate that aggression. This introduced key concepts like **modelling**, **imitation**, and **vicarious reinforcement** – that’s when you learn by seeing someone *else* being rewarded or punished. Crucially, SLT introduced **mediational processes** – Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation – the cognitive steps that occur between observation and behaviour. This was a huge step, because it re-introduced the mind into the equation. And that leads us perfectly to the **Cognitive Approach**. This approach sees the human mind as being like a computer. It’s all about our internal mental processes: perception, memory, language. Cognitive psychologists use theoretical models, like the multi-store model of memory, and computer models to understand these processes. A key concept here is the **schema** – a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that develop from experience. Schemas help us process information quickly, but they can also lead to stereotypes and distortions. Now for a big shift in perspective: the **Biological Approach**. This one is all about the body. It states that everything psychological is at first biological. It looks at the influence of our **genes**, the structure and function of our **nervous system**, and the role of **neurochemistry**. For example, low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin are linked to depression. This approach also considers the role of evolution, suggesting behaviours that were adaptive for our ancestors, like attachment, are passed down through our genes. Remember to be precise with your terms here: the **genotype** is your genetic code, while the **phenotype** is how those genes are expressed through interaction with the environment. Next, we dive deep into the mind with Freud’s **Psychodynamic Approach**. This is the one you’ve probably heard of! Freud’s big idea was the **unconscious mind**, a vast storehouse of biological drives and repressed memories that influences our behaviour. He proposed the tripartite personality: the **Id**, which operates on the pleasure principle; the **Ego**, the reality principle which mediates between the two; and the **Superego**, our internalised sense of right and wrong. He also proposed five psychosexual stages of development, and said that getting fixated at a stage could cause problems in adulthood. It’s a controversial but hugely influential approach. Finally, we have the **Humanistic Approach**, which emerged as a reaction against the negativity of Freud and the mechanistic views of behaviourism. Humanists like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow emphasised **free will** – the idea that we are active agents in our own development. They believed everyone has an innate drive to achieve their full potential, a state called **self-actualisation**. For Rogers, achieving this required **congruence** between your self-concept and your ideal self. He argued that many of our issues stem from the **conditions of worth** placed on us in childhood, leading to incongruence. It’s a uniquely positive and person-centred perspective. **(Short musical sting)** **Host:** Okay, let’s talk exam technique. For a 16-mark ‘Discuss’ or ‘Outline and Evaluate’ question on the approaches, you need a clear structure. Aim for 6 marks of AO1 – that’s your accurate description of the approach. Then, you need 10 marks of AO3 – your evaluation. Don’t just list strengths and weaknesses. Develop your points. For example, don’t just say ‘the biological approach is reductionist’. Explain *why* it’s reductionist – because it reduces complex human behaviour to the level of genes and neurons – and then discuss whether that’s a strength or a limitation. A common mistake is confusing **negative reinforcement** with **punishment**. Remember: negative reinforcement *removes* something unpleasant to *increase* a behaviour. Punishment *adds* something unpleasant to *decrease* a behaviour. Another pitfall is just describing a study. The examiner doesn’t want a full page on the Bobo Doll procedure; they want you to explain the *theory* of Social Learning, using the study as evidence. When you’re comparing approaches, use comparative language. Words like ‘whereas’, ‘in contrast’, and ‘similarly’ force you to make a direct link and show the examiner you are thinking synoptically. For example: “Whereas the Behaviourist approach sees the individual as a passive machine, the Humanistic approach champions the idea of free will and personal agency.” That’s a high-level comparison. **(Short musical sting)** **Host:** Right, are you ready for a quick-fire quiz? Let’s see what you can remember. Cover your notes! One: What term describes learning by observing someone else being rewarded for their behaviour? **(Pause)** That’s vicarious reinforcement. Two: Which approach proposes the existence of the Id, Ego, and Superego? **(Pause)** The Psychodynamic approach. Three: The concept of schema is central to which approach? **(Pause)** The Cognitive approach. Four: Who argued that to achieve self-actualisation, an individual’s self-concept and their ideal self must be in a state of congruence? **(Pause)** Carl Rogers. Five: What is the key difference between the Behaviourist approach and Social Learning Theory? **(Pause)** Social Learning Theory includes mediational (cognitive) processes, while behaviourism rejects the study of internal mental processes. **(Short musical sting)** **Host:** And that’s a wrap! We’ve journeyed from Wundt’s lab in Leipzig, through behaviourism, the cognitive revolution, and the diverse perspectives of the biological, psychodynamic, and humanistic approaches. The key to success is not just knowing them in isolation, but being able to compare and contrast them using the core issues and debates like determinism vs. free will, and reductionism vs. holism. Think about where each approach sits on these spectrums. Thanks for listening. Go back through your notes, create some flashcards, and practice applying these theories to novel scenarios. You’ve got this. **(Outro Music Fades In)**
Key Terms & Definitions
- Vicarious Reinforcement
- Learning that occurs by observing the consequences of another person's behaviour. If a model is seen to be rewarded for a behaviour, the observer is more likely to imitate it.
- Congruence
- A state in which a person's 'ideal self' and 'actual self' are consistent or very similar.
- Schema
- A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience.
- Reductionism
- The scientific strategy of reducing complex systems to simpler components to understand them. In psychology, this can be explaining behaviour at a lower level (e.g., biological or environmental).
- Determinism
- The view that an individual's behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an individual's will to do something.
- Negative Reinforcement
- The removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.
Worked Examples
Worked Example
Question: Outline and evaluate the Behaviourist Approach in Psychology. (16 marks)
Solution: **AO1: Outline (6 marks)** The Behaviourist Approach proposes that we are born as a 'blank slate' (tabula rasa) and all behaviour is learned through interaction with the environment. It focuses only on observable stimulus-response behaviours, rejecting the study of internal mental processes. There are two key learning mechanisms. The first is **Classical Conditioning**, demonstrated by Pavlov, which is learning through association. A neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food) that produces an unconditioned response (e.g., salivation). Eventually, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, producing the conditioned response on its own. The second is **Operant Conditioning**, researched by Skinner, which is learning through consequences. Behaviour is shaped by reinforcement or punishment. **Positive reinforcement** involves receiving a reward for a behaviour, making it more likely to be repeated. **Negative reinforcement** involves removing an unpleasant stimulus, which also makes the behaviour more likely to be repeated. **Punishment** is an unpleasant consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated. **AO3: Evaluation (10 marks)** One major strength of the Behaviourist Approach is its basis in **well-controlled research**. By focusing on observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings, such as Skinner's research with rats, behaviourists were able to break down complex learning into simple stimulus-response units. This gave psychology greater scientific credibility and has led to real-world applications. For example, operant conditioning is the basis of **token economy systems** used successfully in prisons and psychiatric wards to manage behaviour. This demonstrates the practical value of the approach. However, a significant limitation is the issue of **environmental determinism**. The approach sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned, ignoring any possible influence of free will. Skinner argued that free will is simply an illusion. This is a hard deterministic stance that portrays humans as passive, machine-like responders to the environment, which is an extreme position that ignores the role of conscious decision-making that is evident in everyday human behaviour. Furthermore, the behaviourist reliance on **animal research** raises issues of extrapolation. Skinner and Pavlov conducted research on rats and dogs, but the cognitive and physiological differences between animals and humans mean we cannot confidently generalise the findings. For example, human behaviour is heavily influenced by higher-order thought and emotion, factors not present in animals. This challenges the idea that behaviourist principles can provide a complete explanation of complex human actions. Finally, the approach is **environmentally reductionist**. It reduces complex human learning down to simple stimulus-response links, ignoring the influence of other factors such as biology or cognition. For example, the Biological Approach would point to the role of genes and neurochemistry, while the Cognitive Approach would highlight the importance of internal mental processes. By ignoring these influences, behaviourism offers an incomplete account of human behaviour.
Worked Example
Question: John has a phobia of spiders. It is so severe that he refuses to enter his garden shed. He thinks he may have developed the fear by seeing his older brother scream and run away from a spider when they were children. Referring to John's phobia, explain how the Social Learning Theory of behaviour would explain its development. (4 marks)
Solution: Social Learning Theory would suggest John acquired his phobia of spiders through **indirect or vicarious reinforcement**. He observed his older brother, who can be seen as a **role model**, showing an extreme fear response (screaming and running away) to a spider. John would have paid **attention** to this behaviour and **retained** the memory of it. The apparent fear and relief his brother showed by running away acted as the vicarious reinforcement. When John later encounters a spider, he **reproduces** this learned behaviour (fear and avoidance) because he has learned to associate spiders with a fear response through his brother's experience.
Worked Example
Question: Briefly discuss one strength and one limitation of the Psychodynamic Approach. (4 marks)
Solution: **Strength**: One strength of the Psychodynamic Approach is its significant practical application in creating the first 'talking cure', **psychoanalysis**. This therapy was the first to attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically, using techniques to access the unconscious mind. It formed the basis for many modern psychotherapies, demonstrating its value in helping people with psychological problems. **Limitation**: A key limitation is that many of Freud's concepts are **untestable and unfalsifiable**. The unconscious mind, the Id, and the Oedipus complex are abstract concepts that are not open to empirical testing. We cannot scientifically prove or disprove their existence. This means the approach fails to meet the scientific criterion of falsifiability, leading Karl Popper to label it a 'pseudoscience'.
Practice Questions
Question: Outline the key features of the Biological Approach in psychology. (6 marks)
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Question: Compare the Cognitive Approach with the Psychodynamic Approach. (8 marks)
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Question: Outline what is meant by 'congruence' in the context of the Humanistic Approach. (2 marks)
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Question: Explain one limitation of Social Learning Theory. (3 marks)
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Question: Distinguish between classical conditioning and operant conditioning. (4 marks)
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