Geography A

    Pearson Edexcel
    GCSE

    Specification: 1GA0

    The PEARSON-EDEXCEL GCSE Geography A specification covers 66 topics with 176 learning objectives (1GA0). Use the topic browser below to explore subtopics, exam tips, common mistakes, and key terminology for each area of the course.

    Starting Pearson Edexcel GCSE Geography A this term? The whole specification is below, unit by unit.

    This subject will help you develop key knowledge and skills required for exam success.

    66

    Topics

    176

    Objectives

    0

    Exam Tips

    0

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    Key Features

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    About Pearson Edexcel GCSE Geography A

    Pearson Edexcel GCSE Geography A is a dynamic and engaging course that explores the complex interactions between people and their environments. You will study a balanced mix of physical and human geography, covering topics such as tectonic hazards, coastal landscapes, urban issues, and global development. The specification is designed to help you understand the world around you and the challenges it faces.

    The course is structured into three components: Physical Geography, Human Geography, and Geographical Investigations. Each component builds your knowledge and skills, with a focus on real-world examples and case studies. You will develop critical thinking, data analysis, and fieldwork skills that are valuable for further study and employment.

    Assessment Structure

    This qualification is assessed through three written exam papers, all taken at the end of the course. Paper 1 (Physical Geography) is worth 37.5% of the GCSE, Paper 2 (Human Geography) is worth 37.5%, and Paper 3 (Geographical Investigations) is worth 25%. Each paper is 1 hour and 30 minutes long and contains a mix of multiple-choice, short-answer, and extended-writing questions. There is no coursework; however, fieldwork is a compulsory part of the course and is assessed in Paper 3.

    Why Choose Pearson Edexcel?

    • Edexcel GCSE Geography A offers a clear and logical structure, with separate physical and human geography papers that allow you to focus your revision effectively. The specification includes a wide range of engaging topics, from extreme environments to globalisation, ensuring there is something to interest every student.
    • The fieldwork requirement is flexible, allowing schools to choose local sites that best fit their circumstances. Edexcel also provides excellent support materials, including past papers, mark schemes, and exemplar answers, which are invaluable for exam preparation.
    • The skills developed in this course, such as map reading, data interpretation, and decision-making, are highly transferable and well-regarded by colleges, universities, and employers. Edexcel's reputation for rigorous and relevant geography qualifications makes it a popular choice.

    Frequently Asked Questions

    Specification Topics

    66 topics

    There are geological variations within the UK

    b. The role of geology and past tectonic processes in the development of upland (igneous and metamorphic rocks) and lowland (sedimentary rocks) landscapes., a. Characteristics and distribution of the UK’s main rock types: sedimentary (chalk, sandstone) igneous (basalt, granite), metamorphic (schists, slates).

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    Distinctive river landscapes are the outcome of the interaction between physical and human processes

    a. The significance of the location of one named distinctive UK river landscape (upland/lowland), how it has been formed and the most influential factors in its change.

    1 objectives

    A variety of physical processes interact to shape glaciated upland landscapes

    c. How past climate and current UK weather and climate (seasonal and diurnal variations in weather) affect processes that impact on glaciated upland landscapes., b. Physical processes that operate on the relict upland glacial landscapes of today: mechanical weathering (freeze thaw), mass movement (soil movement, and rock falls/slides)., a. Glacial processes that once operated in the glaciated upland landscape: glacial erosion (plucking, abrasion), transport (on or within the ice) and deposition.

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    Glacial erosion and deposition create distinctive landforms within glaciated upland landscapes

    b. The role of depositional processes in the development of landforms (ground and terminal moraines)., c. The interaction of deposition and erosion processes in the development of landforms (crag and tail and drumlins)., a. The role of erosional processes in the development of landforms (truncated spurs, corries, glacial troughs, glacial lake/tarns, arêtes, hanging valleys and roche moutonnées).

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    Human activities can lead to changes in glaciated upland landscapes

    b. Advantages and disadvantages of development (water storage and supply, renewable energy, recreation and tourism, conservation) and how they can lead to change in glaciated upland landscapes., a. How human activity (farming, forestry, settlement) has impacted on physical processes in glaciated upland landscapes.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    Distinctive glaciated upland landscapes are the outcome of the interaction between physical and human processes

    a. The significance of the location of one named distinctive glaciated upland landscape in the UK (karst limestone/ igneous/metamorphic), how it has been formed and the most significant factors in its change.

    1 objectives

    A number of physical and human processes work together to create distinct UK landscapes

    a. How distinctive upland and lowland landscapes result from the interaction of physical processes (glacial erosion and deposition, weathering and climatological, post-glacial river and slope processes)., b. How distinctive landscapes result from human activity (agriculture, forestry, settlement) over time.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    A variety of physical processes interact to shape coastal landscapes

    b. Influence of geological structure (concordant/discordant, joints and faults), rock type (hard/soft rock) and wave action (destructive and constructive waves) on landforms, c. How the UK’s weather and climate (seasonality, storm frequency and prevailing winds) affect rates of coastal erosion and retreat, and impact on landforms and landscape., a. The physical processes at work on the coast: weathering (mechanical, chemical, biological), mass movement (sliding and slumping), erosion (abrasion, hydraulic action, attrition and solution), transport (traction, saltation, suspension, solution and longshore drift) and deposition.

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    Coastal erosion and deposition create distinctive landforms within the coastal landscape

    b. The role of depositional processes in the development of landforms: bars, beaches and spits., a. The role of erosional processes in the development of landforms: headlands and bays, caves, arches, cliffs, stacks, wave cut platforms.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    Human activities can lead to changes in coastal landscapes which affect people and the environment

    b. The advantages and disadvantages of different coastal defences used on the coastline of the UK (hard engineering, sea walls, groynes and rip rap and soft engineering, beach nourishment and managed retreat) and how they can lead to change in coastal landscapes., a. How human activities (urbanisation, agriculture and industry) have affected landscapes and the effects of coastal recession and flooding on people and the environment.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    Distinctive coastal landscapes are the outcome of the interaction between physical and human processes

    a. The significance of the location of one named distinctive coastal landscape within the UK (discordant, concordant, coastline of deposition, coastal retreat) including how it has been formed and the most influential factors in its change.

    1 objectives

    A variety of physical processes interact to shape river landscapes

    a. The physical processes at work in the river landscape: weathering (mechanical, chemical and biological), mass movement (sliding and slumping), erosion (abrasion, hydraulic action, attrition and solution), transport (traction, saltation, suspension and solution) and deposition., c. How the UK’s weather (short-term events such as storms and droughts) and climate affect river processes and impact on landforms and landscapes., b. How river landscapes contrast between the upper courses, mid courses and lower courses of rivers and why channel shape (width, depth), valley profile, gradient, discharge, velocity and sediment size and shape change along the course of a named UK river.

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    Erosion and deposition interacting with geology create distinctive landforms in river landscapes

    b. The role of depositional processes in the formation of flood plains, levees and point bars., c. The interaction of deposition and erosion processes in the development of landforms (meanders, oxbow lakes)., a. The role of erosion processes and the influence of geology in the development of landforms: interlocking spurs, waterfalls, gorges and river cliffs.

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    Human activities can lead to changes in river landscapes which affect people and the environment

    a. How human activities and changes in land use (urbanisation, agriculture and industry) have affected river processes that impact on river landscapes; the physical and human causes and effects of river flooding., b. Advantages and disadvantages of different defences used on UK rivers (hard engineering– dams, reservoirs and channelisation and soft engineering– flood plain zoning and washlands) and how they can lead to change in river landscapes.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    The atmosphere operates as a global system transferring heat and energy

    a. The features of the global atmospheric circulation., b. How circulation cells and ocean currents transfer and redistribute heat energy across the Earth.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    The global climate was different in the past and continues to change due to natural causes

    a. How climate has changed in the past over different time scales: glacial and interglacial periods during the Quaternary period., b. Causes (Milankovitch cycles, solar variation, volcanism) and evidence (ice cores, pollen records, tree rings, historical sources) for natural climate change.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    Global climate is now changing as a result of human activity

    b. Negative effects that climate change is having on the environment and people (changing patterns of crop yield, rising sea levels and retreating glaciers)., a. How human activities (industry, transport, energy, farming) produce greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane) that cause the enhanced greenhouse effect.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    The UK has a distinct climate which has changed over time

    b. Spatial variations in temperature, prevailing wind and rainfall within the UK., a. Climate of the UK today and changes over the last 1000 years., c. The significance of the UK’s geographic location in relation to its climate.

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    Tropical cyclones are extreme weather events that develop under specific conditions and in certain locations

    b. Characteristics, frequency and geographical distribution of tropical cyclones and how these change over time., a. How the global circulation of the atmosphere leads to tropical cyclones (hurricanes and typhoons) in source areas and the sequence of their formation.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    There are various impacts of and responses to natural hazards caused by tropical cyclones depending on a country’s level of development

    a. Reasons why tropical cyclones are natural weather hazards (high winds, intense rainfall, storm surges, coastal flooding and landslides)., b. Different social, economic and environmental impacts that tropical cyclones can have on a named developed and a named emerging or developing country., c. Different responses to tropical cyclones of individuals, organisations and governments in a named developed and a named emerging or developing country.

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    The causes of drought are complex with some locations more vulnerable than others

    a. Characteristics of arid environments compared to the extreme weather conditions associated with drought., b. Different causes of the weather hazard of drought: meteorological, hydrological, and human (agricultural, dam building, deforestation)., c. Why the global circulation makes some locations more vulnerable to drought as a natural hazard than others and how this changes over time.

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    The impacts of, and responses to drought vary depending on a country’s level of development

    a. Reasons why droughts are hazardous., b. How the impacts of drought on people and ecosystems can vary for a named developed and a named emerging or developing country., c. Different responses to drought from individuals, organisations and governments in a named developed and a named emerging or developing country.

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    The biosphere is a vital system

    a. How the biosphere provides resources for people (food, medicine, building materials and fuel resources) but is also increasingly exploited commercially for energy, water and mineral resources.

    1 objectives

    The UK has its own variety of distinctive ecosystems that it relies on

    b. Importance of marine ecosystems to the UK as a resource and how human activities are degrading them., a. Distribution and characteristics of the UK’s main terrestrial ecosystems (moorlands, heaths, woodlands, wetlands).

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    Tropical rainforests show a range of distinguishing features

    b. The interdependence of biotic and abiotic characteristics (climate, soils, water, plants, animals and humans) and the nutrient cycle (Gersmehl model)., a. Biotic and abiotic characteristics of the tropical rainforest ecosystem (climate, soils, water, plants, animals and humans)., c. Why rainforests have very high biodiversity and how plants (stratified layers, buttress roots, drip tips) and animals (strong limbs, modified wings and beaks, camouflage) are adapted to that environment.

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    Tropical rainforest ecosystems provide a range of goods and services, some of which are under threat

    b. How climate change presents a threat to the structure, functioning and biodiversity of tropical rainforests., c. Economic and social causes of deforestation (conversion to agriculture, resource extraction, population pressure)., d. Political and economic factors (governance, commodity value and ecotourism) that have contributed to the sustainable management of a rainforest in a named region. +1 more

    4 objectives4 subtopics

    Deciduous woodlands show a range of distinguishing features

    a. Abiotic and biotic characteristics of the deciduous woodland ecosystem (climate, soil, water, plants, animals and humans)., c. Why deciduous woodlands have moderate biodiversity and how plants (leaf size and structure, water conservation in winter) and animals (migration, hibernation and food storage) are adapted to that environment., b. The interdependence of biotic and abiotic characteristics (climate, soil, water, plants, animals and humans) and the nutrient cycle (Gersmehl model).

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    Deciduous woodland ecosystems provide a range of goods and services, some of which are under threat

    b. How climate change presents a threat to the structure, function and biodiversity of the deciduous woodland ecosystem., a. Examples of goods and services provided by deciduous woodland ecosystems (timber, fuel, conservation and recreation)., d. Different approaches to the sustainable use and management of deciduous woodlands in a named region. +1 more

    4 objectives4 subtopics

    Urbanisation is a global process

    b. How and why urbanisation has occurred at different times and rates in different parts of the world (developed, emerging and developing countries) and the effects., a. Contrasting trends in urbanisation over the last 50 years in different parts of the world (developed, emerging and developing countries).

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    The degree of urbanisation varies across the UK

    b. Factors causing the rate and degree of urbanisation to differ between the regions of the UK., a. Distribution of urban population in the UK and the location of its major urban centres.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    The context of the chosen UK city influences its functions and structure

    b. Chosen UK city’s structure (Central Business District (CBD), inner city, suburbs, urban-rural fringe) in terms of its functions and building age., a. Site, situation and connectivity of the chosen UK city in a national (cultural and environmental), regional and global context.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    The chosen UK city is being changed by movements of people, employment and services

    b. Causes of national and international migration and the impact on different parts of the chosen UK city (age structure, ethnicity, housing, services)., a. The sequence of urbanisation, suburbanisation, counter-urbanisation and re-urbanisation processes and their distinctive characteristics for the chosen UK city.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    Globalisation and economic change create challenges for the chosen UK city that require long-term solutions

    e. The range of possible strategies aimed at making urban living more sustainable and improving quality of life (recycling, employment, education, health, transport, affordable and energy-efficient housing) for the chosen UK city., b. Causes of deindustrialisation (globalisation, de-centralisation, technological advances and developments in transport) and impacts on the chosen UK city., a. Key population characteristics of the chosen UK city’s that is available from the Census and reasons for population growth or decline. +2 more

    5 objectives5 subtopics

    The context of the chosen developing country or emerging country city influences its functions and structure

    b. The chosen city’s structure (Central Business District (CBD), inner city, suburbs, urban-rural fringe) in terms of its functions and building age., a. Site, situation and connectivity of the chosen city in a national (cultural and environmental), regional and global context.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    The character of the chosen developing country or emerging country city is influenced by its fast rate of growth

    c. How the growth of the chosen city is accompanied by increasing inequality (areas of extreme wealth versus poverty) and reasons for differences in quality of life., b. Causes of national and international migration and the impact on different parts of the chosen city (age structure, ethnicity, housing, services)., a. Reasons for past and present trends in population growth (rates of natural increase, national and international migration, economic investment and growth).

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    Rapid growth, within the chosen developing country or emerging country city, results in a number of challenges that need to be managed

    a. Challenges resulting from the chosen city’s rapid urbanisation: variable quality and provision of infrastructure, services and housing; under-employment and informal employment; pollution., b. Advantages and disadvantages of both bottom-up and top-down approaches to managing the chosen city’s challenges and improving the quality of life for its people., c. The role of government policies in improving the quality of life (social, economic and environmental) within the chosen city.

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    Definitions of development vary as do attempts to measure it

    a. Contrasting ways of defining development, using economic criteria and broader social and political measures., b. Different factors contribute to the human development of a country: economic, social, technological, cultural, as well as food and water security., c. How development is measured in different ways: Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita, the Human Development Index, measures of inequality and indices of political corruption.

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    The level of development varies globally

    a. Global pattern of development and its unevenness between and within countries, including the UK., b. Factors (physical, historic and economic) that have led to spatial variations in the level of development globally and within the UK.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    Uneven global development has had a range of consequences

    a. Impact of uneven development on the quality of life in different parts of the world: access to housing, health, education, employment, technology, and food and water security.

    1 objectives

    A range of strategies has been used to try to address uneven development

    a. The range of international strategies (international aid and inter-governmental agreements) that attempt to reduce uneven development., b. Difference between top-down (government or transnational corporation (TNC) led) and bottom-up development projects (community led). Their advantages and limitations in the promotion of development.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    The level of development of the chosen developing or emerging country is influenced by its location and context in the world

    b. Broad political, social, cultural and environmental context of the chosen country in its region and globally., a. Location and position of the chosen country in its region and globally., c. Unevenness of development within the chosen country (core and periphery) and reasons why development does not take place at the same rate across all regions.

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    The interactions of economic, social and demographic processes influence the development of the chosen developing or emerging country

    e. Changing social factors (increased inequality, growing middle class and improved education) in the chosen country., b. Characteristics of international trade and aid and the chosen country’s involvement in both., c. Changing balance between public investment (by government) and private investment (by TNCs and smaller businesses) for the chosen country. +2 more

    5 objectives5 subtopics

    Changing geopolitics and technology impact on the chosen developing or emerging country

    a. How geopolitical relationships with other countries affect the chosen country’s development: foreign policy, defence, military pacts, territorial disputes., b. How technology and connectivity support development in different parts of the chosen country and for different groups of people.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    There are positive and negative impacts of rapid development for the people and environment of the chosen developing or emerging country

    b. How the chosen country’s government and people are managing the impacts of its rapid development to improve quality of life and its global status., a. Positive and negative social, economic and environmental impacts of rapid development for the chosen country and its people.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    A natural resource is any feature or part of the environment that can be used to meet human needs

    b. Ways in which people exploit environments in order to obtain water, food and energy (extraction of fossil fuels, fishing, farming and deforestation)., c. How environments are changed by this exploitation (reduced biodiversity, soil erosion and reduced water and air quality)., a. Natural resources can be defined and classified in different ways (biotic, abiotic, renewable and non-renewable).

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    Countries at different levels of development have water supply problems

    a. Why the UK has water supply problems (imbalances of the supply and demand for rainfall, seasonal imbalances and an ageing infrastructure: sewage and water pipes)., b. Why emerging or developing countries have water supply problems (access to only untreated water, pollution of water courses and low annual rainfall).

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    Meeting the demands for water resources could involve technology and interventions by different interest groups

    b. How technology (desalination) can resolve water resource shortages., a. How attitudes to the exploitation and consumption of water resources vary with different stakeholders (individuals, organisations and governments).

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    Management and sustainable use of water resources are required at a range of spatial scales from local to international

    c. How one developed country and one emerging or developing country have attempted to manage their water resources in a sustainable way., b. Different views held by individuals, organisations and governments on the management and sustainable use of water resources., a. Why water resources require sustainable management.

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    The patterns of the distribution and consumption of natural resources varies on a global and a national scale

    b. Global patterns of usage and consumption of food, energy and water., a. Global and UK variety and distribution of natural resources (soil and agriculture, forestry, fossil fuels, water supply, rock and minerals).

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    Renewable and non-renewable energy resources can be developed

    a. Energy resources can be classified as renewable and non-renewable., c. Advantages and disadvantages of the production and development of one renewable energy resource., b. Advantages and disadvantages of the production and development of one non-renewable energy resource.

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    To meet demand, countries use energy resources in different proportions. This is called the energy mix

    a. The composition of the UK’s energy mix., b. How global variations in the energy mix are dependent on a number of factors: population, wealth and the availability of energy resources.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    There is increasing demand for energy that is being met by renewable and non-renewable resources

    b. How non-renewable energy resources (coal, oil, natural gas and uranium) are being developed and how this can have both positive and negative impacts on people and the environment., a. How and why global demand and supply has changed over the past 100 years due to human intervention: world population growth, increased wealth and technological advances., c. How renewable energy resources (hydro-electric power (HEP), wind power and solar power) are being developed and how this can have both positive and negative impacts on people and the environment. +1 more

    4 objectives4 subtopics

    Meeting the demands for energy resources can involve interventions by different interest groups

    a. How attitudes to the exploitation and consumption of energy resources vary with different stakeholders (individuals, organisations and governments).

    1 objectives

    Management and sustainable use of energy resources are required at a range of spatial scales from local to international

    a. Why renewable and non-renewable energy resources require sustainable management., b. Different views held by individuals, organisations and governments on the management and sustainable use of energy resources., c. How one developed country and one emerging country or developing country have attempted to manage their energy resources in a sustainable way.

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    The supply of fresh water supply varies globally

    b. How the availability of fresh water varies on a global, national and local scale., a. Global distribution of fresh water., c. Why some parts of the world have a water surplus or a water deficit. +1 more

    4 objectives4 subtopics

    There are differences between the water consumption patterns of developing countries and developed countries

    b. Why there are differences in water usage between developed countries and emerging or developing countries., a. The proportion of water used by agriculture, industry and domestic in developed countries and emerging or developing countries.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    Topic 7: Fieldwork enquiry process stages

    Understanding of the kinds of question capable of being investigated through fieldwork and an understanding of the geographical enquiry processes appropriate to investigate these., Reflecting critically on fieldwork data, methods used, conclusions drawn and knowledge gained., Understanding of the range of techniques and methods used in fieldwork, including observation and different kinds of measurement. +3 more

    6 objectives6 subtopics

    Topic 8: 8.4 The UK’s climate change challenges

    a. Uncertainties about how global climate change will impact on the UK’s future climate., b. Impacts of climate change on people and landscapes in UK, c. Range of responses to climate change in the UK at a local and national scale.

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    Topic 3: 3.1 Large-scale ecosystems

    a. Distributions and characteristics of the world’s large-scale ecosystems (tropical, temperate and boreal forests, tropical and temperate grasslands, deserts and tundra)., b. The role of climate and local factors (soils and altitude) in influencing the distribution of different large-scale ecosystems.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

    Task: Coastal landscapes – investigation of coastal processes through landscape evidence

    A geology map e.g. BGS Geology of Britain viewer., Fieldwork data collection must include at least: one quantitative fieldwork method to measure beach morphology and sediment characteristics; one qualitative fieldwork method to record landforms that make up the coastal landscape., Students must have an opportunity to develop understanding of the kinds of question that can be investigated through fieldwork in coastal environments. Students must have an opportunity to develop a question(s) based on their location and the task. +2 more

    5 objectives5 subtopics

    Task: Changing city environments – investigating change in central/inner urban area(s)

    Fieldwork data collection must include at least: one qualitative fieldwork method to record the quality of the urban environment; one quantitative fieldwork method to measure land use function., Physical interaction: students must develop their understanding of the interaction between physical landscape features, the central/inner urban area and residents and visitors., The use of at least two different secondary sources of data, including: Census data e.g. Office for National Statistics (ONS) website; one other chosen by the centre. +1 more

    4 objectives4 subtopics

    Topic 8: 8.1 The UK’s resource consumption and environmental sustainability challenge

    b. Pressures of growing populations on the UK’s ecosystems., a. Changes in the UK’s population in the next 50 years and implications on resource consumption., c. Range of national sustainable transport options for the UK.

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    Task: Changing rural environments – investigating change in rural settlements

    Physical interaction: students must develop their understanding of the interaction between physical landscape features, rural settlements and residents and visitors., Students must have an opportunity to develop understanding of the kinds of question that can be investigated through fieldwork in rural environments. Students must have an opportunity to develop a question(s) based on their location and the task., The use of at least two different secondary sources of data, including: Census data e.g. Office for National Statistics (ONS) Neighbourhood Statistics – neighbourhood summary report; one other chosen by the centre. +1 more

    4 objectives4 subtopics

    Topic 8: 8.2 The UK settlement, population and economic challenges

    b. Costs and benefits of greenfield development and the regeneration of brownfield sites., a. The ‘two-speed economy’ and options for bridging the gap between south east and the rest of the UK., c. UK net migration statistics and their reliability and values and attitudes of different stakeholders towards migration.

    3 objectives3 subtopics

    Task: River landscapes – investigation of change in a river channel.

    Students must have an opportunity to develop understanding of the kinds of questions that can be investigated through fieldwork in river environments. Students must have an opportunity to develop a question(s) based on their location and the task., A flood risk map e.g. Environment Agency flood risk map., One other secondary source. +2 more

    5 objectives5 subtopics

    Topic 8: 8.3 The UK’s landscape challenges

    a. Approaches to conservation and development of UK National Parks, b. Approaches to managing river and coastal UK flood risk.

    2 objectives2 subtopics

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