The Provisional government and its opponents, February– October 1917 — Edexcel A-Level History
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The Provisional government and its opponents, February– October 1917 explained
The Provisional government and its opponents, February– October 1917 covers 4 specification points, including The political complexion of the Provisional… and Conflicting attitudes on the continuation of….
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The nature of dual power: the political complexion of the Provisional government; the extent of its power and support; the aims and membership of the Petrograd Soviet; early political reforms.
Dual power describes two rival authorities after February 1917. The Provisional Government, drawn largely from liberal Kadets and Octobrists in the Duma, held formal office but lacked elected legitimacy; it depended on the Petrograd Soviet's tolerance. The Soviet, dominated by Mensheviks and SRs, claimed to speak for workers and soldiers through Order No. 1, yet initially supported the government conditionally. Its power rested on mass support, not law. The government's authority was limited: it controlled ministries but not the army rank and file or factories. Early reforms included civil liberties, religious tolerance, abolition of the death penalty and preparation for a Constituent Assembly.
Opposition to the Provisional government: conflicting attitudes on the continuation of the war; Lenin’s return to Russia and the April Theses; the Milyukov crisis; the June Offensive and the July Days.
Opposition to the Provisional Government grew from divisions over the First World War. Liberals and many socialists initially supported continuing the war to defend the revolution, while soldiers and workers increasingly demanded peace. Lenin returned in April 1917 and issued the April Theses, rejecting cooperation with the government and calling for soviet power. The Milyukov crisis in April, over foreign minister Milyukov's pledge to fight to victory, forced his resignation and weakened the government. In June the government launched the June Offensive, which failed and fuelled unrest. The July Days saw armed demonstrations in Petrograd; the government suppressed them and blamed the Bolsheviks, forcing Lenin into hiding.
The second Provisional government, July–October: Kerensky as Prime Minister; the membership of the new government; problems in industry and agriculture; the Kornilov affair and its impact on the government and the Bolsheviks.
After the July Days, the second Provisional government formed with Kerensky as Prime Minister. It was a coalition including Kadets, SRs and Mensheviks, but its authority was fragile. Industrial problems persisted: workers faced low wages, food shortages and factory closures, leading to strikes and radicalisation. Agriculture suffered from land seizures, peasant unrest and food supply issues. The Kornilov affair in August, when General Kornilov appeared to move troops towards Petrograd, was seen by Kerensky as a coup attempt. Kerensky armed Bolsheviks and workers to defend the city, but the affair discredited the government and boosted Bolshevik support, as they were seen as defenders of the revolution. This period set the stage for the October Revolution.
The October Revolution: Lenin’s influence on the Central Committee; the Constituent Assembly elections; Trotsky and the Military Revolutionary Committee; the events of 24–26 October; the formation of the Bolshevik government.
Lenin returned to Russia in April 1917 and pushed the Bolsheviks towards revolution. By October, he persuaded the Central Committee to agree to an armed uprising. Trotsky, as chairman of the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC), organised the seizure of key points in Petrograd. On 24–26 October, Bolshevik forces took control of the Winter Palace and arrested the Provisional government. The Constituent Assembly elections in November saw the SRs win a majority, but the Bolsheviks dissolved the Assembly in January 1918. The Bolshevik government, the Council of People's Commissars, was formed with Lenin as chairman. This marked the establishment of the first socialist state.
Your focus
- Define dual power and identify the two competing authorities in Petrograd after February 1917.
- Describe the political composition and support base of the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet.
- Evaluate the extent of the Provisional Government's power by reference to its early reforms and its dependence on the Soviet.
Show all 12 objectives
- Explain the conflicting attitudes towards continuing the First World War and how they generated opposition.
- Describe Lenin's April Theses and the events of the Milyukov crisis, the June Offensive and the July Days.
- Analyse how these developments weakened the Provisional Government and strengthened its opponents.
- Describe the composition and leadership of the second Provisional government.
- Analyse the problems in industry and agriculture during July–October 1917.
- Evaluate the impact of the Kornilov affair on the government and the Bolsheviks.
- Explain Lenin's role in persuading the Central Committee to support an armed uprising.
- Describe the role of Trotsky and the Military Revolutionary Committee in the October Revolution.
- Assess the significance of the Constituent Assembly elections and the formation of the Bolshevik government.
The Provisional government and its opponents, February– October 1917 exam tips
Marking Points
- Explains that dual power meant the Provisional Government held formal ministerial authority while the Petrograd Soviet commanded mass loyalty among workers and soldiers.
- Identifies the political complexion of the Provisional Government as predominantly liberal, with Kadets and Octobrists prominent, and notes its lack of elected mandate.
- Assesses the extent of the government's power: it could pass reforms and run ministries but could not enforce authority over the army or factories without Soviet consent.
- Explains the aims and membership of the Petrograd Soviet, including Menshevik and SR dominance and its role in issuing Order No. 1.
- Describes early political reforms such as civil liberties, religious tolerance, abolition of the death penalty and moves towards a Constituent Assembly.
- Evaluates how the relationship between the two bodies shaped political stability and the government's freedom of action.
- Explains the conflicting attitudes towards the war: liberal and some socialist support for continuing it against growing popular demands for peace.
- Describes Lenin's return to Russia and the April Theses, including his rejection of the Provisional Government and call for soviet power.
- Analyses the Milyukov crisis as a turning point that exposed the government's vulnerability over the war and led to Milyukov's resignation.
- Explains the June Offensive and its failure, and how this intensified opposition and unrest.
- Describes the July Days as armed demonstrations that were suppressed, with blame placed on the Bolsheviks and Lenin forced into hiding.
- Evaluates how these events eroded the Provisional Government's authority and strengthened revolutionary opposition.
- Kerensky became Prime Minister in July 1917, leading a coalition government that included Kadets, SRs and Mensheviks.
- The government faced industrial unrest: strikes, low wages, food shortages and factory closures, which increased support for Bolsheviks.
- Agricultural problems included peasant land seizures, food supply disruptions and rural unrest, undermining government authority.
- The Kornilov affair in August 1917 involved General Kornilov's attempted move on Petrograd, which Kerensky perceived as a coup.
- Kerensky armed Bolsheviks and workers to defend Petrograd, but the affair discredited the government and enhanced Bolshevik credibility as defenders of the revolution.
- Lenin's influence on the Central Committee was crucial in securing a vote for an armed uprising in October 1917.
- Trotsky led the Military Revolutionary Committee, which coordinated the Bolshevik seizure of power in Petrograd.
- The events of 24–26 October involved the Bolsheviks taking control of key infrastructure and the Winter Palace, leading to the fall of the Provisional government.
- The Constituent Assembly elections in November 1917 resulted in a majority for the Socialist Revolutionaries, but the Assembly was dissolved by the Bolsheviks in January 1918.
- The formation of the Bolshevik government, the Council of People's Commissars, with Lenin as chairman, established the new Soviet state.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Define dual power precisely in your opening sentence, then use it as the analytical thread throughout the essay.
- 💡Support claims about power and support with specific evidence such as Order No. 1 or the membership of the first cabinet.
- 💡When discussing reforms, assess their significance for the government's authority rather than merely listing them.
- 💡Link each event to the theme of opposition and the government's declining authority rather than narrating events in isolation.
- 💡Use precise dates and names, such as April 1917 for the Theses and July 1917 for the July Days, to show secure knowledge.
- 💡Compare the significance of the Milyukov crisis, the June Offensive and the July Days in weakening the government.
- 💡Use specific dates and names to show precise knowledge, such as July 1917 for Kerensky becoming Prime Minister and August 1917 for the Kornilov affair.
- 💡Explain the connections between the Kornilov affair and the Bolsheviks' increased support, rather than just describing events.
- 💡In essays, balance the problems in industry and agriculture with political developments to show a comprehensive understanding.
- 💡Use precise dates and names, such as 24–26 October for the revolution and Trotsky for the MRC.
- 💡Explain the significance of the Constituent Assembly elections and their aftermath for the Bolshevik consolidation of power.
- 💡In essays, link Lenin's ideological drive with Trotsky's practical organisation to show how the revolution was achieved.
Common Mistakes
- Treating the Provisional Government as fully sovereign; correction: it shared authority with the Soviet and often needed Soviet approval.
- Assuming the Petrograd Soviet was Bolshevik-controlled in spring 1917; correction: Mensheviks and SRs were dominant until later in the year.
- Listing reforms without linking them to the government's weakness; correction: explain how reforms were limited by the government's dependence on the Soviet and the army.
- Confusing the April Theses with a call for immediate armed uprising; correction: Lenin called for soviet power and an end to cooperation, not an immediate insurrection.
- Treating the July Days as a Bolshevik coup; correction: they were spontaneous armed demonstrations that the Bolsheviks initially hesitated to lead.
- Describing the Milyukov crisis without linking it to the war; correction: the crisis arose directly from Milyukov's commitment to continuing the war.
- Error: Confusing the first and second Provisional governments. Correction: The second government formed after the July Days with Kerensky as Prime Minister, while the first was led by Lvov.
- Error: Stating that the Kornilov affair was a successful coup. Correction: It was an attempted coup that failed, but it weakened the government and strengthened the Bolsheviks.
- Error: Overlooking the impact of industrial and agricultural problems on the government's stability. Correction: These problems fuelled unrest and contributed to the Bolsheviks' growing support.
- Error: Claiming that the October Revolution was a mass uprising. Correction: It was a carefully planned coup carried out by the Bolsheviks and their allies, not a spontaneous mass movement.
- Error: Stating that the Constituent Assembly elections were won by the Bolsheviks. Correction: The SRs won the majority, leading the Bolsheviks to dissolve the Assembly.
- Error: Underestimating Trotsky's role in the revolution. Correction: Trotsky's leadership of the MRC was instrumental in the success of the uprising.