Moral philosophy — AQA A-Level Philosophy Revision

    This topic covers three major normative ethical theories: Utilitarianism, Kantian deontological ethics, and Aristotelian virtue ethics. It examines the def

    Topic Synopsis

    This topic covers three major normative ethical theories: Utilitarianism, Kantian deontological ethics, and Aristotelian virtue ethics. It examines the definitions of moral concepts (good, bad, right, wrong) within these frameworks, their internal structures, and the critical issues and debates associated with each.

    Key Concepts & Core Principles

    Exam Tips & Revision Strategies

    Common Misconceptions & Mistakes to Avoid

    Examiner Marking Points

    Moral philosophy

    AQA
    A-Level

    This topic covers three major normative ethical theories: Utilitarianism, Kantian deontological ethics, and Aristotelian virtue ethics. It examines the definitions of moral concepts (good, bad, right, wrong) within these frameworks, their internal structures, and the critical issues and debates associated with each.

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    Objectives
    12
    Exam Tips
    13
    Pitfalls
    6
    Key Terms
    18
    Mark Points

    Subtopics in this area

    Normative ethical theories
    Applied ethics
    Meta-ethics

    Topic Overview

    Moral philosophy, or ethics, is the branch of philosophy that examines questions about right and wrong, good and bad, and how we ought to live. In the AQA A-Level Philosophy course, this topic is a core component of the 'Moral Philosophy' section, which explores three major normative ethical theories: utilitarianism, Kantian deontology, and Aristotelian virtue ethics. You'll also study meta-ethics, which asks whether moral statements can be true or false, and applied ethics, where you'll apply these theories to real-world issues like stealing, simulated killing, and eating animals. Understanding moral philosophy is crucial because it equips you with the tools to critically evaluate moral arguments, a skill that is valuable not only for exams but for navigating ethical dilemmas in everyday life.

    This topic builds on foundational philosophical skills such as logical reasoning, argument analysis, and the ability to evaluate competing perspectives. You'll need to engage with key thinkers like Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, Immanuel Kant, and Aristotle, as well as contemporary philosophers like Peter Singer and Philippa Foot. The AQA specification requires you to compare and contrast these theories, assess their strengths and weaknesses, and apply them to specific scenarios. Mastery of moral philosophy will also help you in other areas of the course, such as epistemology and metaphysics, where similar analytical skills are required.

    Why does moral philosophy matter? Beyond the exam, it challenges you to think deeply about the principles that guide human behaviour. You'll explore questions like: Is there a universal moral truth? Can we ever be truly selfless? How should we balance individual rights against the greater good? These are not just abstract puzzles; they have practical implications for law, politics, medicine, and personal relationships. By the end of this topic, you should be able to construct and defend your own ethical arguments while understanding the complexities and limitations of each theory.

    Key Concepts

    Core ideas you must understand for this topic

    • →Normative ethics vs meta-ethics: Normative ethics prescribes how we ought to act (e.g., utilitarianism), while meta-ethics analyses the nature of moral language and whether moral truths exist.
    • →The greatest happiness principle: The core of utilitarianism, which states that actions are right if they promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number.
    • →The categorical imperative: Kant's central concept, which commands actions that are universally applicable and treat persons as ends in themselves, never merely as means.
    • →The function argument: Aristotle's idea that the good life (eudaimonia) consists in fulfilling our characteristic function as rational beings, which involves developing virtues.
    • →Moral realism vs anti-realism: Realists believe moral statements can be true or false (e.g., naturalism, non-naturalism), while anti-realists deny this (e.g., emotivism, prescriptivism).

    What You Need to Demonstrate

    Key skills and knowledge for this topic

    • Accurate definition of 'utility' and 'maximising utility' in Utilitarianism (Bentham vs Mill).
    • Distinction between act and rule utilitarianism.
    • Understanding of Kant's 'good will', duty, and the categorical imperative (first and second formulations).
    • Understanding of Eudaimonia, the function argument, and the doctrine of the mean in Virtue Ethics.
    • Ability to compare and contrast the three theories.
    • Evaluation of specific issues such as Nozick's experience machine, clashing duties, or the skill analogy.
    • Accurate application of normative ethical theories to the specified issues
    • Integration of meta-ethical perspectives where relevant

    Marking Points

    Key points examiners look for in your answers

    • Accurate definition of 'utility' and 'maximising utility' in Utilitarianism (Bentham vs Mill).
    • Distinction between act and rule utilitarianism.
    • Understanding of Kant's 'good will', duty, and the categorical imperative (first and second formulations).
    • Understanding of Eudaimonia, the function argument, and the doctrine of the mean in Virtue Ethics.
    • Ability to compare and contrast the three theories.
    • Evaluation of specific issues such as Nozick's experience machine, clashing duties, or the skill analogy.
    • Accurate application of normative ethical theories to the specified issues
    • Integration of meta-ethical perspectives where relevant
    • Clear evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of applying specific theories to the issues
    • Use of philosophical terminology to structure arguments
    • Ability to compare how different theories reach different conclusions on the same issue
    • Distinction between cognitivism and non-cognitivism
    • Moral realism (naturalism and non-naturalism)
    • Moral anti-realism (Error Theory, Emotivism, Prescriptivism)
    • Hume's Fork and the verification principle
    • Hume's is-ought gap and motivation argument
    • Mackie's arguments from relativity and queerness
    • Moore's open question argument and the Naturalistic Fallacy

    Examiner Tips

    Expert advice for maximising your marks

    • 💡Ensure you can clearly define the key terms for each theory (e.g., 'categorical imperative', 'Eudaimonia', 'utility').
    • 💡When evaluating, focus on the specific issues listed in the specification (e.g., 'tyranny of the majority' for Utilitarianism).
    • 💡Use the set texts to support your arguments.
    • 💡Practice applying each theory to the applied ethics topics (stealing, simulated killing, eating animals, telling lies).
    • 💡Ensure you can explain how a Utilitarian, a Kantian, and a Virtue Ethicist would each approach the same issue
    • 💡Use the specific issues as a vehicle to demonstrate your understanding of the normative theories
    • 💡Practice constructing arguments that weigh competing ethical considerations for each issue
    • 💡Refer back to the core definitions of good, bad, right, and wrong within each theory when applying them
    • 💡Ensure you can clearly define cognitivism and non-cognitivism as the starting point for any meta-ethical essay
    • 💡Use the set texts (Ayer, Mackie, Hare, Moore, Hume) to support your analysis
    • 💡Practice applying meta-ethical theories to the applied ethics topics (stealing, simulated killing, eating animals, telling lies)
    • 💡Be precise with terminology like 'mind-independent' and 'reductive'
    • 💡Always define key terms precisely before using them. For example, when discussing utilitarianism, distinguish between act and rule versions, and between hedonistic and preference-based accounts. This shows the examiner you understand the nuances.
    • 💡Use specific examples to illustrate your points. For instance, when evaluating Kant's ethics, use the 'lying promise' example to show how the categorical imperative works. Then, challenge it with a counterexample like the 'murderer at the door' to demonstrate critical thinking.
    • 💡When comparing theories, don't just list strengths and weaknesses. Instead, make explicit comparisons: 'Unlike utilitarianism, which focuses on consequences, Kant's ethics is deontological, meaning it judges actions by their intrinsic rightness. This leads to different verdicts on issues like...' This structure earns higher marks.

    Common Mistakes

    Pitfalls to avoid in your exam answers

    • Confusing act and rule utilitarianism.
    • Misinterpreting Kant's categorical imperative as a hypothetical imperative.
    • Failing to distinguish between quantitative and qualitative hedonism in Utilitarianism.
    • Overlooking the role of habituation and practical wisdom in Virtue Ethics.
    • Applying theories to moral issues without referencing the core normative principles.
    • Describing ethical theories in isolation without applying them to the specific issues
    • Failing to use meta-ethical concepts to deepen the analysis of the applied issues
    • Confusing the different normative theories (e.g., misapplying Kantian duty to Utilitarian utility calculations)
    • Lack of critical evaluation of the theories themselves when applied to the case studies
    • Confusing meta-ethical theories with normative ethical theories
    • Failing to distinguish between cognitivist and non-cognitivist positions
    • Misapplying Hume's is-ought gap to normative arguments rather than meta-ethical ones
    • Confusing moral naturalism with moral non-naturalism
    • Misconception: Utilitarianism is just about 'the greatest good for the greatest number' without considering individual rights. Correction: While act utilitarianism can justify rights violations, rule utilitarianism (e.g., Mill's version) includes secondary principles that protect rights, and some utilitarians argue that respecting rights maximises happiness in the long run.
    • Misconception: Kant's ethics is completely inflexible and never allows lying. Correction: While Kant famously argued that lying is always wrong, some scholars interpret his system as allowing exceptions when the lie is necessary to prevent a greater evil (e.g., lying to a murderer at the door). However, Kant's own writings suggest he would not permit this, so be careful in exams.
    • Misconception: Virtue ethics is just about being a good person and doesn't give clear guidance on what to do. Correction: Virtue ethics provides guidance by focusing on what a virtuous agent would do in a given situation. It also uses the doctrine of the mean to find the appropriate action between excess and deficiency.

    Frequently Asked Questions

    Common questions students ask about this topic

    Before You Start

    Prior knowledge that will help with this topic

    • •A basic understanding of philosophical argumentation, including premises, conclusions, and counterarguments.
    • •Familiarity with the concept of 'good' and 'bad' as used in everyday moral discourse, as this will be refined and challenged in the course.
    • •Some knowledge of the historical context of the 18th and 19th centuries (for utilitarianism and Kant) and ancient Greece (for Aristotle) is helpful but not essential.

    Key Terminology

    Essential terms to know

    Likely Command Words

    How questions on this topic are typically asked

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