Gender — AQA A-Level Psychology
Test yourself on Gender with AQA A-Level practice questions.
7 days Premium · Then the free plan continues · No card, no charge
Gender explained
Biological sex is initially determined by the 23rd pair of chromosomes: XX for females and XY for males.
Read the full explanation
The Y chromosome triggers testes development. Hormones then direct sexual differentiation. Testosterone promotes male characteristics. Oestrogen regulates the female reproductive system. Oxytocin facilitates childbirth, lactation, and bonding. Diversity in sex development occurs when chromosomal or hormonal patterns vary. Klinefelter's syndrome (XXY) affects biological males, causing physical traits like reduced body hair and psychological traits like poor language skills. Turner syndrome (XO) affects females, leading to short stature and high reading ability. Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) occurs when XY individuals do not respond to male hormones, resulting in female physical development.
Gender identities, including binary, non-binary and gender fluid. How gender has been measured using the Bem Sex Role Inventory.
Gender identity is a person's internal sense of their gender. Binary identities align strictly with traditional male or female categories. Non-binary identities exist outside this dichotomy, while gender fluid individuals experience shifts in their gender identity over time. To measure gender, the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) uses a self-report questionnaire. Respondents rate themselves on a 7-point scale across 60 traits: 20 masculine, 20 feminine, and 20 neutral. Scores classify individuals as masculine, feminine, androgynous (high in both), or undifferentiated (low in both). Bem argued that androgyny is psychologically healthy, as it allows for greater behavioural flexibility.
Biological explanations of gender development, including chromosomes and hormones.
The biological approach argues gender development is driven by genetics and physiology. Chromosomes initially determine sex; typical females have XX and males have XY. The Y chromosome's SRY gene triggers testes development and androgen release. Hormones then direct gender development prenatally and at puberty. Testosterone masculinises the brain, promoting male-typical behaviours. Oestrogen regulates the female reproductive system and influences female-typical behaviours. Oxytocin, produced more in females, facilitates bonding. While supported by case studies like David Reimer, this approach is often criticised for biological reductionism, as it ignores the significant role of socialisation and cognitive processes in shaping gender identity.
Cognitive explanations of gender development, Kohlberg’s theory, gender identity, gender stability and gender constancy; Martin and Halverson's gender schema theory.
Cognitive explanations propose that children's understanding of gender develops alongside their general cognitive maturation. Kohlberg’s theory outlines three stages: gender identity (around age two, recognising oneself as male or female), gender stability (around age four, understanding gender remains fixed over time but can be confused by outward appearance), and gender constancy (around age six, realising gender remains consistent across time and situations, prompting the imitation of same-sex models). In contrast, Martin and Halverson’s gender schema theory argues that children begin forming schemas—mental frameworks organising gender-appropriate behaviour—as soon as they establish basic gender identity. These schemas actively direct a child's attention towards in-group behaviours and away from out-group behaviours long before constancy is achieved.
Social learning theory as applied to gender development. The influence of culture and media on gender roles.
Bandura says gender behaviour is learned, not matured into. Children observe models, especially same-sex ones, and imitate what they see rewarded, which is vicarious reinforcement; direct tuition ('good girls don't shout') and differential reinforcement do the rest, mediated by attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. Smith and Lloyd (1978) dressed the same babies as boys or girls and found adults handed 'boys' a hammer and 'girls' a doll, so differential treatment starts before the child acts at all. Culture and media supply the models: Mead found neighbouring Papua New Guinea tribes with very different gender norms, and Williams (1986) found children in a Canadian town called Notel became markedly more stereotyped in their views within two years of television arriving.
Gender incongruence: biological and social/cultural explanations.
Gender incongruence is the mismatch between biological sex and experienced gender identity, distinct from gender dysphoria. Biological explanations focus on atypical brain development, such as variations in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTc), or genetic factors indicated by twin studies showing higher concordance for monozygotic twins. However, sexual dimorphism in the BSTc emerges in adulthood, challenging claims of prenatal development. Social and cultural explanations emphasise environmental influences. Psychoanalytic theories suggest incongruence arises from extreme separation anxiety, while learning theories point to the reinforcement of cross-gender behaviours. Cultural variations highlight the role of societal norms.
Your focus
- Outline the role of chromosomes and specific hormones in the development of biological sex.
- Describe the physical and psychological characteristics of Klinefelter's syndrome, Turner syndrome, and androgen insensitivity syndrome.
- Evaluate the biological explanation of sex development using research evidence and alternative approaches.
Show all 19 objectives
- Define binary, non-binary, and gender fluid identities.
- Describe the methodology and scoring of the Bem Sex Role Inventory.
- Evaluate the validity and reliability of the BSRI as a measure of gender.
- Explain the role of chromosomes in typical gender development.
- Describe the behavioural and physiological effects of testosterone, oestrogen, and oxytocin.
- Evaluate biological explanations of gender development using relevant psychological evidence.
- Describe the three stages of Kohlberg's theory of gender development.
- Explain the role of schemas in Martin and Halverson's gender schema theory.
- Evaluate cognitive explanations of gender development using empirical evidence.
- Describe modelling, vicarious reinforcement and the four mediational processes as the route by which gender behaviour is learned.
- Explain how Smith and Lloyd's baby-dressing study shows differential treatment starting before the child acts.
- Apply social learning theory to the change in Notel children's gender views in the two years after television arrived.
- Evaluate social learning theory by weighing its account of rapid cultural change against gender-typed behaviour in infants.
- Define gender incongruence and distinguish it from gender dysphoria and typical gender development.
- Explain biological and social/cultural theories of gender incongruence.
- Evaluate the validity of different explanations for gender incongruence using research evidence.
Gender exam tips
Marking Points
- Identify the typical chromosomal patterns for biological sex (XX for females, XY for males) and the role of the SRY gene.
- Explain the specific roles of testosterone, oestrogen, and oxytocin in physical development and behaviour.
- Describe the atypical chromosomal patterns and associated physical and psychological characteristics of Klinefelter's (XXY) and Turner (XO) syndromes.
- Explain androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) as a hormonal variation where an XY individual's cells do not respond to androgens.
- Evaluate the biological approach to sex development by discussing the interactionist approach or the role of environmental factors.
- Define binary, non-binary, and gender fluid identities accurately.
- Describe the structure of the BSRI, noting it consists of 60 items divided equally into masculine, feminine, and neutral traits.
- Explain the scoring system of the BSRI, which uses a 7-point rating scale to classify individuals into four distinct categories: masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated.
- Evaluate the BSRI by discussing its reliance on self-report measures, which may be subject to social desirability bias, or its temporal validity given its development in the 1970s.
- Identify the role of XX and XY chromosomes in determining typical female and male biological sex.
- Explain the function of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome in triggering male physiological development.
- Describe the role of specific hormones, including testosterone, oestrogen, and oxytocin, in physical and behavioural gender development.
- Evaluate the biological explanation using evidence from atypical sex chromosome patterns or relevant case studies.
- Discuss the limitations of biological reductionism and determinism in explaining complex gender behaviours.
- Outline Kohlberg's three stages of gender development: identity, stability, and constancy, including approximate ages.
- Explain that in Kohlberg's theory, children only actively seek out same-sex role models after achieving gender constancy.
- Describe Martin and Halverson's gender schema theory, emphasising that schema formation begins immediately after gender identity is established.
- Evaluate both theories using research evidence, such as Slaby and Frey for Kohlberg, or Martin and Halverson's own memory distortion studies for schema theory.
- Modelling, imitation and identification with same-sex models set out as the core mechanism.
- Vicarious reinforcement and differential reinforcement distinguished, with an example of each.
- The mediational processes named: attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation.
- Evidence of differential treatment cited, such as Smith and Lloyd's (1978) baby-dressing study.
- Culture and media treated as sources of models, with named evidence such as Mead's cross-cultural work or Williams's (1986) natural experiment in Notel.
- Evaluation: social learning explains rapid cultural change in gender roles better than biology, but media findings are correlational and the approach cannot account for biological cases or for gender-typed behaviour in children too young to model.
- Define gender incongruence as the mismatch between assigned biological sex and experienced gender identity, distinguishing it from gender dysphoria.
- Explain biological factors, including brain structure anomalies (like the BSTc) and genetic vulnerability supported by twin studies.
- Describe social and cultural explanations, such as operant conditioning of cross-gender behaviour or psychoanalytic perspectives on extreme separation anxiety.
- Evaluate the explanations by discussing the reductionism of biological theories versus the difficulty of empirically testing social and psychoanalytic theories.
Examiner Tips
- 💡When discussing atypical sex chromosome patterns, explicitly separate the physical characteristics from the psychological characteristics to structure your answer clearly.
- 💡Use the case of David Reimer or similar studies to evaluate the extent to which chromosomes and hormones determine gender identity.
- 💡Ensure you can accurately define androgen insensitivity syndrome, as it is a specific addition to the diversity in sex development topic.
- 💡When evaluating the BSRI, use the concept of temporal validity to discuss whether 1970s stereotypes of masculinity and femininity still apply today.
- 💡Be prepared to explain exactly how the BSRI is administered, specifically mentioning the 7-point rating scale and the 60 traits.
- 💡Link the concept of androgyny in the BSRI to psychological well-being, as Bem proposed that adaptability is a sign of mental health.
- 💡Use the case study of David Reimer to evaluate the biological approach, highlighting how his inability to adapt to a female gender assignment supports the influence of biology.
- 💡When discussing hormones, explicitly link them to behavioural effects, such as testosterone and aggression, rather than just physical changes.
- 💡Contrast the biological approach with cognitive or social learning theories to provide a well-rounded evaluation of gender development.
- 💡Use specific ages when outlining Kohlberg's stages to demonstrate precise knowledge of the developmental timeline.
- 💡When evaluating, contrast the two theories directly, particularly regarding when children begin to actively seek out gender-specific information.
- 💡Reference methodological issues in research with young children, such as demand characteristics or limited vocabulary, when evaluating these cognitive theories.
- 💡Application questions on this topic almost always give a scenario with a parent, sibling or advert; name the specific process at work in each line of the stem.
- 💡Use culture and media as AO3 as well as AO1: cross-cultural variation is evidence FOR learning and against pure biology.
- 💡Keep one biological counter-argument ready, such as prenatal testosterone or atypical chromosome patterns, to avoid a one-sided discussion.
- 💡Prepare to discuss the nature-nurture debate, using biological explanations for nature and social/cultural explanations for nurture.
- 💡Use specific anatomical terms like the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTc) when detailing biological explanations to access higher mark bands.
- 💡Critique the methodology of twin studies in this area, noting that small sample sizes limit the generalisability of genetic explanations.
Common Mistakes
- Error: Confusing the chromosomal patterns of Klinefelter's and Turner syndromes. Correction: Remember that Klinefelter's is XXY and affects males, whereas Turner syndrome is XO and affects females.
- Error: Stating that oxytocin is exclusively a female hormone. Correction: Clarify that while oxytocin is crucial for childbirth and lactation, it is present in both sexes and promotes bonding and reduces cortisol in males too.
- Error: Describing AIS as a chromosomal abnormality. Correction: State that AIS is a hormonal condition where the individual has a typical XY chromosomal pattern but their body cannot process androgens.
- Error: Confusing sex and gender identity. Correction: Clearly distinguish sex as a biological classification and gender identity as a psychological and social construct.
- Error: Stating the BSRI only measures masculinity and femininity. Correction: Note that the BSRI yields four categories, explicitly including androgynous and undifferentiated classifications.
- Error: Using 'non-binary' and 'gender fluid' interchangeably. Correction: Define non-binary as an identity outside the male/female dichotomy, and gender fluid as an identity that changes over time or context.
- Error: Stating that chromosomes directly cause gender identity. Correction: Explain that chromosomes determine biological sex, which typically aligns with gender identity, but hormones and environment also play crucial roles.
- Error: Claiming only males produce testosterone and only females produce oestrogen. Correction: Clarify that both sexes produce these hormones, but in significantly different quantities and proportions.
- Error: Confusing the roles of oestrogen and oxytocin. Correction: Specify that oestrogen primarily regulates the reproductive system, while oxytocin is heavily involved in bonding and attachment.
- Confusing gender stability with gender constancy; stability refers to consistency over time, whereas constancy includes consistency across different situations and outward appearances.
- Stating that gender schema theory requires gender constancy; correct this by noting that schema theory posits children begin absorbing gender-appropriate information immediately after basic gender identity is reached.
- Using the theories interchangeably; ensure you distinguish Kohlberg's stage-based maturation from Martin and Halverson's information-processing approach.
- Describing social learning theory in general terms about aggression and never applying a single process to gender.
- Confusing vicarious reinforcement with direct reinforcement; vicarious means the MODEL is rewarded and the child observes it.
- Claiming media studies prove that television causes stereotyping, when the evidence is largely correlational and children may choose stereotyped content.
- Omitting the mediational processes, which is exactly what separates social learning theory from plain behaviourism.
- Error: Conflating gender incongruence with gender dysphoria. Correction: Define gender incongruence as the mismatch between sex and gender identity, and gender dysphoria as the psychological distress that may result from this mismatch.
- Error: Claiming biological explanations are definitive. Correction: Acknowledge that brain differences like the BSTc could be an effect of hormone therapy or emerge in adulthood, rather than being the prenatal cause of incongruence.
- Error: Ignoring the interactionist approach. Correction: Avoid presenting biological and social explanations as mutually exclusive, as both likely contribute to gender incongruence.