Ethics — CCEA A-Level Religious Studies Revision
This subtopic examines utilitarian ethical theory, focusing on its development from Bentham's act utilitarianism to Mill's rule utilitarianism, and evaluat
Topic Synopsis
This subtopic examines utilitarian ethical theory, focusing on its development from Bentham's act utilitarianism to Mill's rule utilitarianism, and evaluating its application to moral dilemmas. Students critically analyse the principle of utility, the hedonic calculus, higher and lower pleasures, and the theory's ability to resolve conflicts between individual and collective welfare.
Key Concepts & Core Principles
- Natural Law: Thomas Aquinas' theory that moral principles are derived from human nature and reason, with the primary precept being 'do good and avoid evil'. Secondary precepts (e.g., preserving life) are absolute and cannot be broken.
- Situation Ethics: Joseph Fletcher's teleological theory that love (agape) is the only absolute, and actions are right if they produce the most loving outcome. It rejects fixed rules in favour of context.
- Utilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham's principle of utility—maximise happiness, minimise pain. John Stuart Mill refined this with qualitative distinctions between higher and lower pleasures.
- The relationship between religion and morality: The Euthyphro dilemma questions whether something is good because God commands it, or God commands it because it is good. This challenges divine command theory.
- Applied ethics: You must be able to apply theories to specific issues like abortion (e.g., Natural Law opposes it as it violates the primary precept of preserving life; Situation Ethics might allow it if it is the most loving outcome).
Exam Tips & Revision Strategies
- Always link your evaluation to specific scholars: use Bentham for act, Mill for rule, and Singer for preference utilitarianism to demonstrate deeper knowledge.
- When assessing strengths, give concrete examples (e.g., medical triage) and explain how utilitarianism provides a clear decision procedure. For weaknesses, focus on justice and minority rights, using the 'tyranny of the majority' criticism.
- In evaluation, reference scholarly critiques like William Barclay’s concern that Situation Ethics places too great a burden on human fallibility and may lead to moral chaos.
- When analysing a dilemma, always relate the decision to the four working principles and show how they guide the action, not merely stating ‘love’ as an outcome.
- When applying Natural Law to ethical issues, explicitly reference the relevant primary precepts and how they guide the deontological prohibition or obligation.
- Use the doctrine of double effect as a sophisticated application tool, clearly outlining the four conditions and assessing whether an action meets them.
- In essays, show breadth by discussing strengths (e.g., universal moral order) and weaknesses (e.g., reliance on a teleological worldview) but always tie back to the application task.
Common Misconceptions & Mistakes to Avoid
- Confusing act and rule utilitarianism, or attributing rule utilitarianism to Bentham.
- Assuming that utilitarianism always leads to morally repugnant outcomes without considering rule-based safeguards.
- Misunderstanding the qualitative distinction between higher and lower pleasures in Mill's theory.
- Confusing Situation Ethics with antinomianism—Fletcher explicitly condemns the ‘anything goes’ approach.
- Reducing agape to simple utilitarianism, ignoring the personalist and positivist dimensions of Fletcher’s theory.
- Applying Situation Ethics superficially without considering the complexity of predicting consequences for love or the clash of loving interests.
Examiner Marking Points
- Award credit for accurately distinguishing between act and rule utilitarianism, referencing Bentham and Mill respectively.
- Award credit for demonstrating critical evaluation of the hedonic calculus, including its practicality and potential for misuse.
- Award credit for applying utilitarian principles to a specific ethical scenario, showing clear reasoning about consequences.
- Award credit for clearly explaining the four working principles (pragmatism, relativism, positivism, personalism) and their role in agapeic calculation.
- Credit for applying Situation Ethics to a specific moral dilemma, demonstrating how agape overrides fixed rules to achieve the most loving outcome.
- Recognise evaluation that engages with strengths (flexibility, person-centredness) and weaknesses (subjectivity, potential for justifying harmful acts).
- Award credit for demonstrating accurate understanding of Aquinas' four tiers of law (eternal, divine, natural, human) and how they interrelate.
- Award credit for clearly identifying and explaining the five primary precepts (worship God, ordered society, reproduce, learn, defend innocent) and their connection to human nature.