Ethics — CCEA A-Level Religious Studies
Ethics explained
This subtopic examines utilitarian ethical theory, focusing on its development from Bentham's act utilitarianism to Mill's rule utilitarianism, and evaluating its application to moral dilemmas.
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Students critically analyse the principle of utility, the hedonic calculus, higher and lower pleasures, and the theory's ability to resolve conflicts between individual and collective welfare.
Your focus
- Explain the different forms of Utilitarianism
- Assess the strengths and weaknesses of Utilitarianism
Ethics exam tips
Topic Overview
Ethics in Religious Studies at CCEA A-Level explores the philosophical and theological foundations of moral decision-making. You will examine key ethical theories—such as Natural Law, Situation Ethics, and Utilitarianism—and apply them to contemporary issues like abortion, euthanasia, and war. The course also delves into the relationship between religion and morality, asking whether moral principles can exist without a divine foundation.
This topic is central to Religious Studies because it bridges abstract philosophy with real-world dilemmas. By studying ethics, you learn to construct reasoned arguments, evaluate competing viewpoints, and reflect on your own moral framework. It also connects with other A-Level topics, such as the problem of evil and the nature of God, as ethical questions often arise from theological debates.
Mastering ethics requires critical thinking and precise use of terminology. You will need to memorise key scholars (e.g., Aquinas, Fletcher, Bentham) and their arguments, while also being able to critique them. The CCEA exam expects you to apply theories to specific scenarios, so practice with past paper questions is essential.
Key Concepts
- →Natural Law: Thomas Aquinas' theory that moral principles are derived from human nature and reason, with the primary precept being 'do good and avoid evil'. Secondary precepts (e.g., preserving life) are absolute and cannot be broken.
- →Situation Ethics: Joseph Fletcher's teleological theory that love (agape) is the only absolute, and actions are right if they produce the most loving outcome. It rejects fixed rules in favour of context.
- →Utilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham's principle of utility—maximise happiness, minimise pain. John Stuart Mill refined this with qualitative distinctions between higher and lower pleasures.
- →The relationship between religion and morality: The Euthyphro dilemma questions whether something is good because God commands it, or God commands it because it is good. This challenges divine command theory.
- →Applied ethics: You must be able to apply theories to specific issues like abortion (e.g., Natural Law opposes it as it violates the primary precept of preserving life; Situation Ethics might allow it if it is the most loving outcome).
Marking Points
- Award credit for accurately distinguishing between act and rule utilitarianism, referencing Bentham and Mill respectively.
- Award credit for demonstrating critical evaluation of the hedonic calculus, including its practicality and potential for misuse.
- Award credit for applying utilitarian principles to a specific ethical scenario, showing clear reasoning about consequences.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Always link your evaluation to specific scholars: use Bentham for act, Mill for rule, and Singer for preference utilitarianism to demonstrate deeper knowledge.
- 💡When assessing strengths, give concrete examples (e.g., medical triage) and explain how utilitarianism provides a clear decision procedure. For weaknesses, focus on justice and minority rights, using the 'tyranny of the majority' criticism.
- 💡Always define key terms and theories before applying them. For example, in a question on abortion, start by explaining Natural Law's primary precepts and then apply them to the scenario. This shows the examiner you understand the theory.
- 💡Use scholars' names and specific quotes or ideas. Instead of saying 'some people think...', say 'Aquinas argued that...' or 'Fletcher claimed that love is the only absolute'. This demonstrates depth of knowledge.
- 💡Evaluate critically. Don't just describe a theory; discuss its strengths and weaknesses. For example, note that Situation Ethics is flexible but can be criticised for being too vague. Examiners reward balanced arguments.
Common Mistakes
- Confusing act and rule utilitarianism, or attributing rule utilitarianism to Bentham.
- Assuming that utilitarianism always leads to morally repugnant outcomes without considering rule-based safeguards.
- Misunderstanding the qualitative distinction between higher and lower pleasures in Mill's theory.
- Misconception: Situation Ethics is the same as 'do whatever you want'. Correction: Situation Ethics is not antinomian; it is guided by the single absolute of agape love, which requires careful reasoning about what is most loving in each situation.
- Misconception: Natural Law is purely religious. Correction: While Aquinas was a Christian theologian, Natural Law is based on reason and can be understood by anyone, regardless of faith. It argues that moral laws are discoverable through human nature.
- Misconception: Utilitarianism always leads to selfish decisions. Correction: Utilitarianism is about maximising overall happiness, not just your own. It can require self-sacrifice if that produces greater good for the majority.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the difference between absolute and relative ethics?
Absolute ethics holds that moral rules are universal and never change, regardless of context. For example, Natural Law's secondary precepts are absolute—you must never directly kill an innocent person. Relative ethics, like Situation Ethics, argues that moral decisions depend on the situation; there are no fixed rules except the principle of love. In exams, you need to compare these approaches and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses.
How do I apply Natural Law to abortion?
Natural Law, based on Aquinas, says the primary precept is to preserve life. Abortion directly ends a foetus's life, so it violates this precept. However, some argue that if the mother's life is at risk, the principle of double effect might apply—you intend to save the mother, not kill the foetus. In your answer, explain the primary and secondary precepts, then apply them to the scenario, and consider counterarguments.
What is the Euthyphro dilemma and why is it important?
The Euthyphro dilemma, from Plato's dialogue, asks: Is something good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good? The first option (divine command theory) makes morality arbitrary—God could command cruelty. The second implies a standard of goodness independent of God, which challenges religious ethics. This dilemma is crucial for evaluating the relationship between religion and morality.
Can Situation Ethics be used to justify anything?
No, Situation Ethics is not a free pass. It requires you to act out of agape love, which means considering the most loving outcome for all involved. For example, lying might be justified if it saves a life, but not for personal gain. Critics argue it is too vague, but Fletcher believed love is a universal principle that guides moral decisions in every context.
How do I structure an essay on ethics?
Start with a clear introduction defining the key terms and stating your argument. Then, explain the first theory (e.g., Natural Law) with scholar references and apply it to the issue. Next, present a second theory (e.g., Situation Ethics) and compare. Evaluate each theory's strengths and weaknesses. Conclude by summarising your argument and giving a justified personal opinion. Use PEEL (Point, Evidence, Explanation, Link) paragraphs.
What are the main criticisms of Utilitarianism?
Utilitarianism is criticised for being too demanding—it might require sacrificing one person to save many, which seems unjust. It also struggles with measuring happiness and ignores individual rights. For example, in a scenario where a doctor could kill one healthy person to save five organ recipients, Utilitarianism might justify it, but most people find this morally wrong. These criticisms are key to evaluating the theory in exams.