A Nation Divided, c1845–1877 – Radical Reconstruction, 1867–1877 (A-level…

The idea

The presidency during Radical Reconstruction was defined by intense political friction. Before leaving office, Andrew Johnson issued his 1868 Christmas amnesty, pardoning former Confederates and angering Radical Republicans. The 1868 election saw Ulysses S. Grant win the presidency, capitalising on his status as a war hero. Grant’s aims focused on stabilising the South, protecting African American rights, and economic recovery. However, his policies were often undermined by his trusting personality, leading to administration scandals. While Grant initially aligned with Radical Republicans, his presidency faced ongoing conflicts with Congress over issues like the annexation of Santo Domingo and civil service reform, limiting executive power.

What earns the marks

• Explain the significance of Johnson's 1868 Christmas amnesty in restoring political rights to former Confederates and escalating tensions with Radical Republicans.
• Analyse the factors leading to Grant's victory in the 1868 election, including his military reputation and the crucial support of newly enfranchised African American voters.
• Evaluate Grant's aims and policies, particularly his efforts to enforce civil rights through the Enforcement Acts and his economic policies regarding the gold standard.
• Assess how the personalities of Johnson (stubborn, uncompromising) and Grant (politically inexperienced, overly loyal to corrupt associates) shaped their presidencies and relations with Congress.
• Examine the causes and consequences of Grant's conflicts with Congress, such as the defeat of the Santo Domingo annexation treaty and clashes over civil service reform.

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Assuming Grant was a Radical Republican.

  Put it right: Grant was a moderate who aligned with Radicals out of pragmatism and a desire for order, not deep ideological purity.

• Confusing Johnson's Christmas amnesty with earlier pardons.

  Put it right: The 1868 Christmas amnesty was a final, blanket pardon for all former Confederates, including Jefferson Davis, issued just before Johnson left office.

• Claiming Grant had no conflicts with Congress.

  Put it right: While Johnson's clashes were more famous, Grant also faced significant congressional opposition, notably from Liberal Republicans over corruption and Southern policy.

Exam tips

• Contrast Johnson's combative personality with Grant's politically naive but well-intentioned approach to evaluate their respective executive effectiveness.
• Use the 1868 election results to demonstrate the vital importance of the African American vote to the Republican Party's national dominance.
• When discussing Grant's policies, balance his civil rights achievements, such as the Ku Klux Klan Act, against the corruption scandals that plagued his administration.