The unification of Italy, c1830–70 - 1 Challenges to the restored order…

The idea

The revolutions of 1848–49 failed for interconnected reasons. Austrian military intervention, led by Radetzky, defeated Piedmont at Custoza and Novara and restored Austrian control in Lombardy-Venetia. French intervention crushed the Roman Republic in 1849, while the papacy, initially sympathetic, condemned the war against Austria and withdrew support, undermining the nationalist cause. Piedmont was militarily weak, lacked allies, and its defeat at Novara forced Charles Albert’s abdication. Revolutionaries were divided between moderates and radicals, and between nationalists and those with local grievances, while popular support was limited, especially among peasants. International support was absent: no major power backed Italian unification, and Britain and France pursued their own interests. These factors together ensured the revolutions’ failure.

What earns the marks

• Austrian intervention under Radetzky was decisive: Austrian forces defeated Piedmont at Custoza (July 1848) and Novara (March 1849), restoring Austrian control in Lombardy and Venetia.
• French intervention in 1849 overthrew the Roman Republic, ending Mazzini’s experiment and demonstrating the willingness of foreign powers to suppress Italian revolutions.
• The papacy’s reaction, including Pius IX’s withdrawal of support for the war against Austria and his condemnation of nationalism, deprived the revolution of moral and political leadership.
• Piedmont’s weaknesses included military defeats, lack of reliable allies, and Charles Albert’s abdication after Novara, which left Piedmont isolated and weakened.
• Lack of revolutionary unity and popular support: divisions between moderates and radicals, and between nationalists and peasants with local grievances, prevented a coordinated movement.
• Lack of international support: no major power actively backed Italian unification, and Britain and France prioritised their own strategic interests.

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Overstating popular support for the revolutions.

  Put it right: Support was often limited to urban elites and students, while many peasants remained indifferent or hostile.

• Assuming the papacy consistently opposed Italian nationalism from the start.

  Put it right: Pius IX initially appeared sympathetic but withdrew support after the outbreak of war with Austria.

• Treating the failure as solely due to Austrian military strength.

  Put it right: French intervention, papal opposition, Piedmontese weakness, and revolutionary disunity were also crucial.

Exam tips

• Structure answers around the named reasons, using specific evidence for each and explaining how they interacted.
• Avoid listing reasons without analysis; show how factors such as foreign intervention and internal division reinforced each other.
• Use precise dates and names, such as Radetzky, Custoza, Novara, Pius IX, and the French siege of Rome, to support arguments.