The unification of Italy, c1830–70 - 1 Challenges to the restored order…

The idea

The 1848–49 revolutions in Italy arose from short-term triggers: economic hardship, food riots, liberal and nationalist agitation, and the example of Paris. Revolution broke out across the Italian states, beginning in Sicily in January 1848, then spreading to Naples, Tuscany, the Papal States and Lombardy-Venetia. Piedmont’s King Charles Albert granted a constitution and, after Milan’s Five Days, entered the First Italian War of Independence against Austria. Counter-revolutions followed: Austria defeated Piedmont at Custoza and Novara, restoring Lombardy and Venetia; Ferdinand II crushed Sicily and Naples; and the papacy opposed war. In Rome, a republic was declared in February 1849 under Mazzini, but French troops besieged and fell it by July. Piedmont retained its Statuto, becoming a base for future unification.

What earns the marks

• Short-term causes include the 1846–47 harvest failures, food price rises, unemployment and the February 1848 Paris revolution, which together triggered unrest in Italian cities.
• The revolution broke out first in Palermo in January 1848, then spread to Naples, Florence, Rome and Milan, where the Five Days in March 1848 expelled Austrian forces.
• Counter-revolution was led by Austria under Radetzky, which defeated Piedmont at Custoza (July 1848) and Novara (March 1849), and by Ferdinand II’s bombardment of Messina and suppression of Sicilian independence.
• The Roman Republic was proclaimed in February 1849 under Mazzini and defended by Garibaldi, but was overthrown by French forces in July 1849 after a siege.

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Treating the 1848 revolutions as solely nationalist.

  Put it right: They combined liberal, nationalist and socio-economic grievances, with many peasants and workers focused on food and land.

• Assuming the Roman Republic lasted into 1850.

  Put it right: It was declared in February 1849 and fell to French forces in July 1849.

• Confusing the First Italian War of Independence with later wars.

  Put it right: It was fought in 1848–49 under Charles Albert of Piedmont against Austria, ending in defeat at Novara.

Exam tips

• Build a clear chronological framework from January 1848 to July 1849, linking each event to its location and outcome.
• Use specific evidence such as the Five Days of Milan, the Battle of Custoza, the Battle of Novara, and the French siege of Rome to support analysis.
• When discussing Piedmont, distinguish between Charles Albert’s initial liberal concessions and his later military defeat and abdication.