Germany, 1871–1990: united, divided and reunited - 2 The birth of…

The idea

By 1917, total war had strained Germany's economy and society: the Turnip Winter brought hunger, inflation and strikes, while the Auxiliary Service Law conscripted labour. The Kaiser's authority waned as Hindenburg and Ludendorff ran a de facto military dictatorship, dictating policy and forcing Bethmann Hollweg's resignation. In July 1917, Erzberger's Peace Resolution urged a negotiated end without annexations, but the military ignored it. The SPD split when anti-war members formed the Independent Socialist Party (USPD), demanding immediate peace and democratisation. These developments eroded trust in the monarchy and parliamentary government, setting the scene for 1918–19.

What earns the marks

• Explains how the strains of war by 1917, including food shortages, inflation and labour unrest, undermined civilian morale and the Kaiser's prestige.
• Analyses the roles of Hindenburg and Ludendorff in establishing a military dictatorship, including their influence over the Kaiser, the Chancellor and war aims.
• Assesses the significance of Erzberger's Peace Resolution of July 1917 as a parliamentary challenge to military control and annexationist aims.
• Explains the emergence of the Independent Socialist Party (USPD) as a split from the SPD over war credits and peace policy, and its call for immediate peace and democratisation.
• Evaluates the extent to which these developments by 1917 made the collapse of the imperial regime and the birth of democracy more likely.

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Treating the military dictatorship as total and unchallenged.

  Put it right: Recognise that the Kaiser, Chancellor and Reichstag still existed, and that the military's power was informal and contested.

• Confusing the USPD with the Spartacists or later KPD.

  Put it right: The USPD was a broad anti-war socialist party formed in 1917, while the Spartacists were a smaller revolutionary group within it.

• Assuming the Peace Resolution ended the war or was accepted by the military.

  Put it right: It was a Reichstag vote that the military leadership ignored, and the war continued.

• Describing the Turnip Winter as merely a bad harvest.

  Put it right: It was a severe food crisis caused by blockade, poor harvests and mismanagement, leading to mass hunger and deaths.

Exam tips

• Use precise dates and names: July 1917 for the Peace Resolution, 1917 for the USPD founding, and distinguish Hindenburg and Ludendorff's roles.
• Link each development to the broader question of how democratic Germany emerged, showing causation and significance rather than listing events.
• When discussing the military dictatorship, weigh its impact against other factors such as economic strain and socialist division to reach a supported judgement.