The making of modern Russia, 1855–1991 - 1 The changing status and…

The idea

This topic examines peasant living standards and movement from land between 1855 and 1991. After 1861, redemption payments and rural overpopulation kept many peasants impoverished. Periodic famines, notably 1891–92 and 1921–22, caused mass suffering. Migration to Siberia and urban areas offered escape but was often temporary or forced. Some periods saw prosperity, such as the NEP years and post-1953 reforms. The 1932 concession of peasant plots allowed limited private cultivation within collectives. The 1953–54 reduction of taxes on private plots and peasant households eased burdens and improved incentives. Assess living standards by weighing these developments against continued state extraction and rural poverty.

What earns the marks

• Explains the burden of redemption payments after 1861: peasants paid for land over decades, reducing disposable income and often causing arrears.
• Analyses overpopulation: rapid rural population growth reduced per capita land, leading to poverty and pressure to migrate.
• Describes periods of famine: 1891–92 and 1921–22 caused millions of deaths, exacerbated by policy failures and environmental factors.
• Evaluates migration: movement to Siberia, Central Asia and cities offered opportunities but was often driven by hardship and sometimes coerced.
• Identifies periods of prosperity: NEP (1921–28) and post-1953 reforms saw improved living standards for some peasants.
• Explains the 1932 concession of peasant plots: allowed collective farmers small private plots for own use, providing a vital safety net.
• Assesses the 1953–54 reduction of taxes on private plots and peasant households: reduced financial pressure, encouraged production, and improved rural incomes.

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Assuming redemption payments ended in 1861.

  Put it right: They continued until 1906, when they were cancelled.

• Treating famine as solely natural.

  Put it right: Recognise the role of government policy, such as requisitioning during the Civil War and collectivisation.

• Believing migration was always voluntary.

  Put it right: Note that some migration was forced or semi-forced, e.g., deportation of kulaks.

• Overlooking the significance of private plots.

  Put it right: Acknowledge that private plots often produced a disproportionate share of food and income.

Exam tips

• Use specific examples of famines and their causes to show understanding of the interplay of policy and environment.
• Compare living standards across different periods (e.g., 1860s vs 1920s vs 1950s) to demonstrate change over time.
• When discussing migration, distinguish between voluntary economic migration and forced resettlement, and assess consequences for both areas left behind and destinations.