The making of modern Russia, 1855–1991 - 2 Agriculture and productivity:…

The idea

Agriculture had to feed a growing and urbanising population from 1861 to 1991. Emancipation and railways expanded grain marketing, but peasant diets and urban supply remained vulnerable. Collectivisation prioritised state procurement and exports, contributing to the 1932–33 famine. Post-1945, towns grew faster than food output; Khrushchev's maize and Virgin Lands aimed to close the gap, with mixed results. Brezhnev's USSR increasingly relied on imports, and the western grain imports of 1972–79 exposed structural weakness. Gorbachev's reforms failed to reverse shortages before 1991. Success should be judged by availability, affordability and nutrition in countryside and town.

What earns the marks

• Explains the changing demands of countryside and town: population growth, urbanisation and rising expectations of food supply across 1861–1991.
• Assesses the extent to which agriculture met those demands in different periods, using evidence such as grain harvests, procurement and shortages.
• Analyses the significance of western grain imports, 1972–79, as evidence of failure to feed the population from domestic production.
• Evaluates the human consequences of shortfalls, including famine, rationing and reliance on imports, for both rural and urban populations.
• Sustains a judgement on the extent of success, distinguishing between feeding the countryside and feeding the towns.

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Assuming that increased grain production always meant better diets.

  Put it right: Consider procurement, distribution and access, especially for peasants.

• Treating the 1972–79 imports as a minor episode.

  Put it right: Explain that they marked a structural dependence on western grain.

• Ignoring the countryside when discussing food supply.

  Put it right: Compare rural self-provisioning and poverty with urban rationing and shortages.

• Confusing the 1932–33 famine with later shortages.

  Put it right: Distinguish the causes and scale of each crisis.

Exam tips

• Define 'feeding the population' in terms of availability, affordability and nutritional adequacy before judging success.
• Use the 1972–79 grain imports as a turning point to structure an argument about long-term failure.
• Compare rural and urban experiences explicitly, using examples such as peasant subsistence versus town rationing.
• Support judgements with named periods and policies, such as collectivisation, the Virgin Lands and Brezhnev's import reliance.