The making of modern China, 1860–1997 - 1 Opening up China to foreigners,…

The idea

The Treaty of Tianjin was signed in 1858 but only ratified in 1860 after further conflict, which is why it is often referred to as the Treaty of Tianjin 1860. Its terms included opening ten new treaty ports (such as Hankou), allowing foreign legations in Beijing, permitting inland Christian missionary activity, legalising the opium trade, and imposing heavy indemnities. Its significance lies in deepening foreign economic and political penetration, severely weakening Qing sovereignty, and accelerating internal reform debates, notably the self-strengthening movement. The 1860 ratification was accompanied by the Convention of Beijing, which added further concessions like the cession of Kowloon. Study the specific terms and judge how far they opened China to foreigners.

What earns the marks

• Identifies the key terms of the Treaty of Tianjin, including additional treaty ports, legations in Beijing, missionary rights, opium legalisation, and indemnities.
• Explains the diplomatic consequences, such as the presence of foreign representatives in Beijing, which challenged the traditional tribute system.
• Explains the economic significance of expanded trade access and the legalisation of opium for foreign merchants and Qing revenues.
• Assesses how the treaty weakened Qing sovereignty and contributed to the opening up of China to foreigners in the 1860–70 period.
• Links the treaty's significance to later reform responses, including the self-strengthening movement and debates about China's place in the world.

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Confusing the terms of the Treaty of Tianjin with the 1860 Convention of Beijing.

  Put it right by noting that while Tianjin (1858/1860) opened ports and legations, the Convention of Beijing ceded Kowloon.

• Listing terms without explaining their significance.

  Put it right by linking each term to foreign penetration or Qing weakness.

• Assuming the treaty alone opened China.

  Put it right by placing it alongside earlier treaties and internal Qing responses.

Exam tips

• Acknowledge that the Treaty of Tianjin was signed in 1858 but ratified in 1860; this demonstrates precise chronological understanding.
• Separate terms from significance in your plan so both parts of the statement are covered.
• Conclude by weighing how far the treaty, rather than other factors, opened China to foreigners in 1860–70.