The making of modern China, 1860–1997 - 5 Reconciliation with old enemies…

The idea

After 1978, Deng Xiaoping’s reforms sought foreign investment and technology, so China courted former adversaries. With Japan, the 1978 Treaty of Peace and Friendship formalised ties, while trade grew through loans and joint ventures; diplomatic visits, such as Deng’s 1978 trip to Tokyo, symbolised reconciliation. With the USA, full diplomatic relations began on 1 January 1979, Deng visited the USA in 1979, and Jiang Zemin made a state visit in 1997. Growing trade with both powers provided capital, markets and expertise, but also exposed China to external pressures. These relationships were significant because they ended isolation, supported modernisation, and reshaped China’s global position before Hong Kong’s return.

What earns the marks

• Explains that the 1978 Treaty of Peace and Friendship with Japan normalised relations and facilitated economic cooperation.
• Describes how Sino-Japanese trade expanded through loans, technology transfers and joint ventures, supporting Deng’s modernisation programme.
• Identifies diplomatic visits, such as Deng’s 1978 visit to Japan, as symbolic and practical steps that reduced Cold War hostility.
• Explains that full diplomatic relations with the USA began on 1 January 1979, following the Shanghai Communiqué and recognition of the PRC.
• Describes Deng’s 1979 visit to the USA as a landmark that improved mutual understanding and encouraged economic links.
• Explains that Jiang Zemin’s 1997 state visit to the USA sustained high-level engagement and reflected China’s growing global role.
• Assesses growing trade with Japan and the USA as both a cause and consequence of improved political relations, with benefits and risks for China.

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Confusing the 1972 Shanghai Communiqué with full diplomatic relations.

  Put it right: Full diplomatic relations between the USA and the PRC began on 1 January 1979.

• Assuming that improved relations with Japan and the USA meant an end to all tensions.

  Put it right: Cooperation coexisted with disputes over Taiwan, trade and human rights.

• Treating Jiang Zemin’s 1997 visit as occurring before Deng’s 1979 visit.

  Put it right: Deng visited the USA in 1979 and Jiang Zemin in 1997, nearly two decades later.

Exam tips

• Link each treaty, visit or trade statistic to a clear consequence for China’s modernisation or international standing.
• Compare the significance of Japan and the USA rather than describing them separately, for example by weighing economic versus strategic importance.
• Use precise dates and names, such as the 1978 Treaty of Peace and Friendship and Jiang Zemin’s 1997 visit, to support arguments.