Civil rights and race relations in the USA, 1850–2009 - 2 The triumph of…

The idea

These three Supreme Court cases shaped the legal framework of Jim Crow. Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) upheld a Louisiana railway segregation law, establishing the ‘separate but equal’ doctrine that allowed states to segregate facilities if they claimed to provide equal ones. Williams v. Mississippi (1898) upheld Mississippi’s voter registration provisions, including poll taxes and literacy tests, despite their discriminatory effect, effectively allowing disenfranchisement to continue. Cumming v. Board of Education (1899) refused to strike down a Georgia school board’s decision to close a black high school while maintaining a white one, showing that the Court would not enforce equal educational provision. Together they legitimised segregation and disenfranchisement, leaving black Americans to rely on protest, migration and later litigation.

What earns the marks

• Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) upheld racial segregation in railway carriages and established the ‘separate but equal’ doctrine, which became a legal foundation for Jim Crow.
• Williams v. Mississippi (1898) upheld Mississippi’s voter registration requirements, including poll taxes and literacy tests, despite evidence of discriminatory application.
• Cumming v. Board of Education (1899) allowed a Georgia school board to close a black high school while keeping a white school open, showing the Court would not enforce equal educational provision.
• The cases collectively legitimised state-level segregation and disenfranchisement, reducing federal protection for black civil rights.
• The ‘separate but equal’ doctrine was used to justify unequal facilities because courts rarely enforced genuine equality.
• The decisions encouraged further Jim Crow legislation and discouraged federal intervention until the mid-twentieth century.

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Believing Plessy v. Ferguson ended segregation.

  Put it right by explaining that it upheld segregation and created the ‘separate but equal’ doctrine.

• Assuming Williams v. Mississippi struck down voter discrimination.

  Put it right by explaining that the Court upheld the state’s registration provisions despite their discriminatory effect.

• Thinking Cumming v. Board of Education required equal schooling.

  Put it right by explaining that the Court allowed a black high school to close while a white school remained open.

• Treating the cases as unrelated.

  Put it right by linking them as a pattern of judicial approval for segregation and disenfranchisement.

Exam tips

• State the year and outcome of each case precisely, and explain its significance rather than only naming it.
• Use the phrase ‘separate but equal’ accurately, noting that it was a doctrine that permitted segregation rather than a guarantee of equality.
• Connect each case to the wider theme of federal retreat from civil rights and the entrenchment of Jim Crow.
• Compare the cases where useful, for example showing how Plessy and Cumming limited equal provision while Williams limited political rights.