Understand the Principles of Animal Nutrition — City & Guilds Limited Occupational Qualification Animal Care & Veterinary Revision

    This element explores the fundamental principles of animal nutrition, focusing on the roles of macronutrients and micronutrients, the evaluation of various

    Topic Synopsis

    This element explores the fundamental principles of animal nutrition, focusing on the roles of macronutrients and micronutrients, the evaluation of various feedstuffs, and the formulation of balanced diets to meet species-specific requirements. Learners will apply this knowledge to prevent and recognize common nutritional disorders, ensuring optimal animal health and welfare in vocational settings.

    Key Concepts & Core Principles

    Exam Tips & Revision Strategies

    Common Misconceptions & Mistakes to Avoid

    Examiner Marking Points

    Understand the Principles of Animal Nutrition

    CITY & GUILDS LIMITED
    vocational

    This element explores the fundamental principles of animal nutrition, focusing on the roles of macronutrients and micronutrients, the evaluation of various feedstuffs, and the formulation of balanced diets to meet species-specific requirements. Learners will apply this knowledge to prevent and recognize common nutritional disorders, ensuring optimal animal health and welfare in vocational settings.

    44
    Learning Outcomes
    41
    Assessment Guidance
    44
    Key Skills
    44
    Key Terms
    47
    Assessment Criteria

    Assessment criteria

    City & Guilds Level 3 Certificate in Animal Management
    City & Guilds Level 3 Certificate in Horse Management
    City & Guilds Level 3 90-Credit Diploma in Animal Management
    City & Guilds Level 3 Diploma in Horse Management
    City & Guilds Level 3 Subsidiary Diploma in Horse Management
    City & Guilds Level 3 90-Credit Diploma in Horse Management
    City & Guilds Level 3 Extended Diploma in Animal Management
    City & Guilds Level 3 Subsidiary Diploma in Animal Management
    City & Guilds Level 3 Diploma in Animal Management
    City & Guilds Level 3 Extended Diploma in Horse Management

    Topic Overview

    The City & Guilds Level 3 Certificate in Animal Management provides a comprehensive foundation in animal care, health, and husbandry. This qualification covers key areas such as animal behaviour, nutrition, health management, and the legal and ethical frameworks governing animal welfare. Students will develop practical skills in handling, feeding, and monitoring a range of species, from companion animals to livestock, preparing them for careers in animal care, veterinary support, or further study.

    This qualification is designed for those who wish to work professionally with animals, whether in kennels, catteries, animal shelters, zoos, or veterinary practices. It emphasises the importance of evidence-based care, biosecurity, and animal welfare legislation, ensuring students understand both the scientific principles and practical applications. By the end of the course, learners will be able to assess animal health, implement appropriate care routines, and communicate effectively with owners and colleagues.

    The Level 3 Certificate sits within the wider Animal Care & Veterinary suite, providing a stepping stone to higher-level qualifications such as the Level 4 Diploma in Animal Management or specialised courses in veterinary nursing. It also supports progression into employment, with many students securing roles as animal care assistants or technicians. The qualification is recognised by employers and professional bodies, making it a valuable asset for anyone serious about a career in animal management.

    Key Concepts

    Core ideas you must understand for this topic

    • →Animal welfare and the Five Freedoms: freedom from hunger and thirst, discomfort, pain/injury/disease, fear/distress, and freedom to express normal behaviour.
    • →Health and safety in animal handling: correct restraint techniques, zoonosis prevention, and use of personal protective equipment (PPE).
    • →Nutritional requirements across species: understanding digestive systems, balanced diets, and feeding regimes for herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.
    • →Animal behaviour and communication: recognising stress signals, social hierarchies, and environmental enrichment to promote psychological wellbeing.
    • →Legal and ethical responsibilities: key legislation including the Animal Welfare Act 2006, Dangerous Dogs Act, and codes of practice for specific species.

    Learning Objectives

    What you need to know and understand

    • Understand the functions of the main components of an animal’s diet., Understand the nutritional values and properties of different food types., Understand the feeding requirements of animals, to ensure they receive a balanced diet., Know common animal nutritional problems.
    • Analyse the digestive physiology of horses and relate it to the functions of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals.
    • Evaluate the nutritional composition of common equine feedstuffs, including forages, concentrates, and supplements, by interpreting feed labels and nutritional analyses.
    • Calculate daily nutrient requirements for horses at different life stages and work intensities using established feeding standards.
    • Formulate a balanced ration using appropriate feedstuffs to meet the specific energy, protein, and fibre needs of a given horse profile.
    • Diagnose the clinical signs and dietary causes of common equine nutritional disorders such as colic, laminitis, and obesity.
    • Understand the functions of the main components of an animal’s diet., Understand the nutritional values and properties of different food types., Understand the feeding requirements of animals, to ensure they receive a balanced diet., Know common animal nutritional problems.
    • Evaluate the role of carbohydrates in equine energy metabolism
    • Analyze the amino acid profile of common feedstuffs for protein quality
    • Calculate digestible energy requirements for horses in different work intensities
    • Assess forage quality using visual and chemical analysis methods
    • Formulate a balanced ration for a pregnant mare considering nutrient demands
    • Diagnose common nutritional deficiencies from clinical signs and dietary history
    • Compare the nutritional properties of hay, haylage, and silage for horses
    • Explain the impact of feeding practices on the risk of colic and laminitis
    • Analyse the roles of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water in equine physiological processes.
    • Evaluate the nutritional composition and suitability of common forages and concentrates using feed analysis data.
    • Formulate a balanced ration to meet the energy and nutrient requirements of a horse in light, moderate, or intense work.
    • Identify clinical signs and nutritional risk factors associated with common disorders such as laminitis, colic, and developmental orthopaedic disease.
    • Analyse the roles of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in equine energy metabolism and tissue maintenance.
    • Evaluate the nutritional composition of common horse feeds using feed tables and laboratory analyses.
    • Design a balanced daily ration for a horse in moderate work, justifying ingredient choices.
    • Diagnose common equine nutritional disorders from clinical signs and dietary history.
    • Explain the importance of forage quality and its impact on digestive health.
    • Calculate the digestible energy and protein requirements for maintenance and performance.
    • Explain the role of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals in maintaining physiological functions.
    • Analyse the nutritional composition of common animal feeds using proximate analysis.
    • Evaluate the suitability of different feed types for specific species and life stages.
    • Design a balanced ration for a given animal, considering feed availability and cost.
    • Identify symptoms and causes of common nutritional deficiencies and excesses.
    • Recommend dietary adjustments to prevent or manage obesity, malnutrition, or metabolic disorders.
    • Analyse the biochemical functions and metabolic pathways of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals in domestic animals.
    • Evaluate the nutritional composition of common feedstuffs using proximate analysis data and feed tables.
    • Formulate a balanced ration for a specified animal, calculating energy and protein requirements based on physiological state.
    • Assess the signs, causes, and corrective measures for nutritional deficiencies such as rickets, anaemia, and obesity.
    • Critically compare the feeding strategies for monogastric and ruminant animals, highlighting digestive adaptations.
    • Apply feed safety and quality assurance principles to prevent nutritional toxicities and spoilage.
    • Understand the functions of the main components of an animal’s diet., Understand the nutritional values and properties of different food types., Understand the feeding requirements of animals, to ensure they receive a balanced diet., Know common animal nutritional problems.
    • Analyse the digestive physiology of the horse to explain nutrient absorption.
    • Evaluate the role of fibre in maintaining hindgut health and preventing colic.
    • Compare the nutritional value of common equine forage and concentrate feeds.
    • Calculate the daily energy and protein requirements for a horse at various life stages.
    • Formulate a balanced ration that meets the specific needs of a performance horse.
    • Identify the clinical signs and dietary causes of laminitis and equine metabolic syndrome.

    Assessment Criteria

    Key criteria assessors look for in your portfolio

    • Award credit for accurately describing the physiological functions of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water, linking each to specific metabolic roles.
    • Look for detailed comparison of food types (e.g., forages, concentrates, complete feeds) including their nutritional profiles, digestibility, and suitability for different species or life stages.
    • Evidence should demonstrate the ability to calculate ration formulations using feeding standards (e.g., NRC) and adjust diets considering age, activity, reproductive status, and health conditions.
    • Assessors should expect clear identification of deficiency and excess symptoms for key nutrients, with correct corrective measures and reference to real-world case studies.
    • Award credit for correctly identifying the primary functions of each nutrient class with specific equine examples.
    • Marks awarded for accurately interpreting feed labels and comparing nutritional analyses of different forage types.
    • Credit given for correctly calculating maintenance and work-related energy requirements using recognised equations.
    • Assessors should look for justification of feed choices linked to the horse’s individual needs and condition.
    • Award marks for clear differentiation between deficiency symptoms and diet-induced diseases with appropriate management recommendations.
    • Award credit for accurately explaining the physiological roles of each major nutrient class (e.g., energy provision, tissue repair, metabolic regulation).
    • Credit should be given for detailed comparisons of different food types (e.g., forages vs concentrates, complete vs complementary feeds) in terms of dry matter, energy density, and nutrient bioavailability.
    • Recognise candidates who calculate daily ration formulations using species-specific requirements and demonstrate adjustment for growth, gestation, lactation, or work.
    • Marks awarded for identifying and describing at least two common nutritional disorders (e.g., obesity, rickets, bloat) with reference to causative dietary imbalances and preventive measures.
    • Award credit for accurate calculation of daily energy requirements based on body weight and workload.
    • Evidence of interpreting feed labels to determine appropriate concentrate type for specific needs.
    • Correct identification of essential amino acids, such as lysine, and their role in muscle development.
    • Demonstration of understanding the calcium:phosphorus ratio and its importance in bone health.
    • Application of feeding small, frequent meals to mimic natural grazing behavior and support digestive health.
    • Accurate identification of key nutrient functions with specific equine examples (e.g., calcium for skeletal development, vitamin E for immune function).
    • Correct interpretation of feed labels and analysis certificates to justify feed choices for different classes of horses.
    • Demonstration of understanding of digestible energy (DE) requirements and their application in ration calculations.
    • Recognition of nutritional causes and management strategies for metabolic conditions like equine metabolic syndrome.
    • Award credit for correctly identifying the six essential nutrient groups and describing at least one specific function per group.
    • Look for accurate interpretation of feed labels, including dry matter, crude protein, and energy content.
    • Credit for demonstrating the use of NRC or similar guidelines in ration calculation.
    • Award marks for linking clinical signs (e.g., laminitis, colic, poor coat) to likely nutritional causes.
    • Expect clear distinction between maintenance, growth, gestation, and work rations in worked examples.
    • Award credit for demonstrating accurate calculation of metabolisable energy from feed labels.
    • Assess understanding through explanation of how protein quality affects monogastric versus ruminant diets.
    • Look for application of feeding standards (e.g., NRC) in ration formulation tasks.
    • Evidence of critical evaluation: comparing fresh, preserved, and concentrated feeds with justification.
    • Award credit for accurately describing at least three functions of dietary protein, e.g., tissue repair, enzyme production, immune response.
    • Look for correct labelling of a feed sample analysis, including dry matter, crude protein, crude fibre, and ash content.
    • Credit responses that calculate metabolisable energy requirements using standard equations and adjust for activity level.
    • Examiners should see clear differentiation between acute and chronic deficiency symptoms, referencing specific vitamins or minerals.
    • Evidence of understanding rumen microbial fermentation and its impact on volatile fatty acid production is essential.
    • Marks for identifying potential contaminants (e.g., mycotoxins, heavy metals) and explaining their health consequences.
    • Award credit for accurately describing the biological roles of major nutrients, including energy provision, tissue repair, and regulation of bodily functions.
    • Expect evidence of comparing the nutritional values of different feed types (e.g., forages, concentrates, supplements) in terms of dry matter, crude protein, fibre, and energy content.
    • Learners should demonstrate ability to calculate daily ration requirements for a given animal, considering species, age, weight, activity level, and production status, ensuring a balanced intake of all essential nutrients.
    • Credit identification of common nutritional problems (e.g., hypocalcaemia, bloat, obesity, vitamin deficiencies) with plausible causes, symptoms, and corrective dietary adjustments.
    • Award credit for accurate calculation of digestible energy requirements based on body weight and workload.
    • Credit demonstration of understanding the difference between structural and non-structural carbohydrates.
    • Expect reference to the horse's hindgut fermentation and its reliance on fibre.
    • Look for correct use of terms like 'crude protein', 'dry matter', and 'as-fed basis' in feed evaluation.
    • Assess ability to link clinical signs (e.g., obesity, hoof rings) to specific nutritional imbalances.
    • Recognise when a student considers water as a critical nutrient in their rationale.

    Assessment Guidance

    Guidance for achieving higher grades

    • 💡When answering assignment questions, always link nutritional theory to practical feeding scenarios, providing specific examples from companion, farm, or exotic animals.
    • 💡Use case studies to demonstrate understanding of nutritional problems; structure your response to show cause, clinical signs, and dietary intervention clearly.
    • 💡In ration calculations, show all working and cross-check units—examiners will award more marks for transparent methodology than for answers alone.
    • 💡When analysing feed labels, always check for the dry matter basis versus as-fed basis to accurately compare nutrient contents.
    • 💡Use mnemonic devices to recall the fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) and their key functions.
    • 💡For ration formulation questions, systematically calculate energy needs first, then protein, and finally balance for fibre content.
    • 💡In case study scenarios, always consider the horse’s dental health, parasite status, and water intake when diagnosing nutritional problems.
    • 💡Refer to authoritative sources like the NRC guidelines for horses to support your feeding recommendations.
    • 💡When explaining nutrient functions in assignments, always link back to specific physiological processes (e.g., calcium for bone formation, vitamin A for vision) to demonstrate deeper understanding.
    • 💡In diet formulation tasks, show all working for ration calculations, referencing authoritative sources such as NRC guidelines, and justify any adjustments based on animal factors.
    • 💡For questions on nutritional problems, structure answers using a systematic approach: name the disorder, describe typical signs, explain the nutritional cause (deficiency/excess), and outline practical solutions.
    • 💡Use correct terminology consistently—distinguish between 'maintenance', 'growth', and 'production' rations, and between 'digestible energy' and 'metabolisable energy'—to meet assessment criteria for academic rigour.
    • 💡In assignment work, always reference accepted industry guidelines such as NRC (National Research Council) nutrient requirements.
    • 💡When evaluating a diet, systematically consider each nutrient class and its function, linking to the horse's specific needs.
    • 💡Use case studies to demonstrate application of feeding principles to different types of horses, such as performance, breeding, or geriatric animals.
    • 💡Be prepared to explain the consequences of poor feeding practices on health and performance, citing specific disorders.
    • 💡Always relate nutritional theory to practical feeding scenarios; use case studies to illustrate points in written assignments.
    • 💡Memorise key nutrient functions and deficiency signs for quick recall in short-answer assessment questions.
    • 💡When calculating rations, show all working step-by-step and justify with evidence from published feeding standards or feed tables.
    • 💡Understand the unique features of equine digestive anatomy to explain feeding management practices, such as the risks of low forage diets.
    • 💡Always relate feed choices to the horse’s hindgut fermentation digestive system to demonstrate deep understanding.
    • 💡Use the current NRC ‘Nutrient Requirements of Horses’ as a reference point when justifying rations.
    • 💡In case study answers, rule out management factors (e.g., dental issues, sudden changes) before concluding nutritional cause.
    • 💡Show working when calculating energy or protein needs – partial marks are often awarded for method.
    • 💡Always reference current industry guidelines (e.g., FEDIAF, NRC) when devising diets.
    • 💡Use case studies to link nutritional theory to practical animal management scenarios.
    • 💡Practice reading feed labels and calculating nutrient percentages on a dry matter basis to avoid common calculation errors.
    • 💡Structure responses to show understanding of species-specific digestive anatomy when explaining nutritional requirements.
    • 💡When tackling scenario-based questions, always identify the animal’s species, age, and physiological status before recommending a diet.
    • 💡Memorise key deficiency symptoms for the most clinically relevant vitamins and minerals (e.g., calcium, vitamin D, iron, vitamin B12).
    • 💡Use the ‘Pearson Square’ method for protein balancing and show all working in calculation tasks to gain partial credit.
    • 💡Prepare to justify ingredient choices with both nutritional and economic reasoning, referencing current feed prices or availability.
    • 💡In written assignments, always connect nutrient functions to practical examples—e.g., calcium for eggshell formation in laying hens.
    • 💡When calculating rations, show all working steps clearly, and double-check unit conversions (e.g., MJ to kcal).
    • 💡Use correct terminology: 'crude protein', 'metabolisable energy', 'as-fed basis' to demonstrate professional understanding.
    • 💡For nutritional problems, structure answers as: identify deficiency/excess, describe clinical signs, propose dietary solutions backed by reference to nutrient requirements.
    • 💡Always relate your feeding plan to the individual horse's age, workload, and body condition score.
    • 💡Use precise terminology such as 'ad libitum', 'dry matter intake', and 'condition scoring' in written assessments.
    • 💡When discussing nutritional disorders, link cause (dietary mismanagement) to physiological effect (e.g., hindgut acidosis).
    • 💡For practical assignments, keep a feed diary and calculate nutrient intakes using current databases or analysis tools.
    • 💡In multiple-choice questions, eliminate answers that contradict basic equine physiology, like high-grain diets for senior horses.
    • 💡Use specific examples from your practical experience or case studies to illustrate your answers. Examiners reward application of theory to real-world scenarios, such as describing how you would set up a rabbit enclosure to meet the Five Freedoms.
    • 💡When discussing legislation, always reference the exact Act or regulation (e.g., Animal Welfare Act 2006) and explain how it applies to a given situation. Avoid vague statements like 'the law says animals must be cared for.'
    • 💡Structure your answers clearly: for longer questions, use bullet points or numbered lists in your response to show logical thinking. This helps examiners award marks for each valid point you make.

    Common Mistakes

    Common errors to avoid in your coursework

    • Confusing the energy values of different macronutrients or overlooking that water is the most critical nutrient.
    • Assuming all proteins have identical amino acid profiles, without considering essential versus non-essential amino acids for the target species.
    • Misapplying feeding guidelines by failing to account for life stage, such as feeding adult maintenance diets to growing juveniles or pregnant animals.
    • Overlooking subclinical nutritional issues and only recognizing severe, acute deficiency diseases like rickets or night blindness.
    • Confusing the roles of water-soluble versus fat-soluble vitamins.
    • Overlooking the importance of forage quality and relying solely on concentrate feeds.
    • Failing to adjust energy requirements for variations in temperature, work intensity, or breeding status.
    • Misdiagnosing nutritional disorders without considering the whole diet and management factors.
    • Assuming all horses have the same nutrient needs regardless of age, breed, or workload.
    • Confusing macronutrient functions, such as stating that protein is a primary energy source rather than its role in growth and repair.
    • Overlooking water as an essential nutrient and failing to discuss its critical role in thermoregulation, digestion, and waste excretion.
    • Assuming all commercial feeds are complete and balanced without checking labelling for life-stage appropriateness or considering individual animal variation.
    • Misidentifying nutritional disorders by attributing symptoms to a single nutrient deficiency without considering interactions or excesses.
    • Confusing crude protein content with protein quality, leading to inadequate essential amino acid supply.
    • Overfeeding energy, particularly from concentrates, resulting in obesity and increased risk of laminitis.
    • Neglecting to provide constant access to fresh, clean water, impairing digestion and thermoregulation.
    • Assuming that all horses have the same vitamin and mineral requirements, ignoring life stage or workload variations.
    • Confusing the roles of structural and non-structural carbohydrates in the equine diet, particularly regarding forage versus grains.
    • Overestimating protein requirements for performance horses, leading to unnecessary supplementation.
    • Failing to account for variation in forage quality when balancing rations, resulting in nutrient imbalances.
    • Misinterpreting the difference between nutrient deficiencies (e.g., selenium deficiency) and toxicities (e.g., selenium toxicity).
    • Confusing the role of crude protein as a primary energy source rather than for tissue building.
    • Overlooking the impact of hay maturity and storage on nutritional value when planning forage intake.
    • Assuming all horses require cereal-based concentrates regardless of workload or metabolic type.
    • Failing to consider water as a nutrient and neglecting its influence on feed intake and health.
    • Misdiagnosing obesity-related laminitis as solely a carbohydrate overload issue.
    • Confusing water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins' storage and toxicity risks.
    • Overlooking the importance of fibre in ruminant digestion and assuming all animals require similar carbohydrate sources.
    • Failing to consider life stage or health status when recommending diets.
    • Miscalculating dry matter basis versus as-fed basis in feed comparisons.
    • Confusing water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins, often misattributing storage sites or excretion routes.
    • Failing to adjust energy density when substituting feed ingredients, leading to imbalanced rations.
    • Assuming all dietary fibre is indigestible; overlooking the role of fermentable fibre in hindgut fermenters.
    • Overlooking species-specific amino acid requirements (e.g., taurine for cats) when interpreting complete diet formulations.
    • Misinterpreting body condition scores; using weight alone rather than combining visual and palpable assessments.
    • Confusing the roles of micronutrients and macronutrients, such as assuming vitamins provide energy.
    • Neglecting water as an essential nutrient and failing to consider its importance in feed calculations and health.
    • Overestimating protein requirements for non-productive animals, leading to unnecessary cost and potential kidney strain.
    • Ignoring species-specific digestive anatomy when recommending feed types (e.g., high-fibre diets for carnivores).
    • Confusing crude protein content with digestible protein, leading to overestimating feed value.
    • Assuming all concentrate feeds are high in starch and sugars without checking specific product labels.
    • Overlooking the importance of forage quality and focusing only on hard feed adjustments.
    • Misapplying energy scales (e.g., using metabolisable energy for maintenance rather than net energy for work).
    • Ignoring the gradual introduction of new feeds, which can cause colic or laminitis.
    • Misconception: 'All animals need the same basic diet.' Correction: Nutritional needs vary hugely; for example, rabbits require high-fibre hay, while cats are obligate carnivores needing taurine. Always research species-specific requirements.
    • Misconception: 'A quiet animal is a happy animal.' Correction: Some animals (e.g., prey species) hide signs of illness or stress. Regular health checks and knowledge of normal behaviour are essential to detect problems early.
    • Misconception: 'Handling is just about picking up the animal.' Correction: Safe handling involves reading body language, using appropriate equipment, and minimising stress. Incorrect handling can cause injury to both animal and handler.

    Frequently Asked Questions

    Common questions students ask about this topic

    Before You Start

    Prior knowledge that will help with this topic

    • •Basic knowledge of animal biology (e.g., cell structure, organ systems) is helpful but not essential, as the course covers these topics.
    • •A genuine interest in animal care and willingness to handle a variety of species, including those that may be nervous or aggressive.
    • •Good communication skills for interacting with owners, colleagues, and veterinary professionals.

    Key Terminology

    Essential terms to know

    • Understand the functions of the main components of an animal’s diet., Understand the nutritional values and properties of different food types., Understand the feeding requirements of animals, to ensure they receive a balanced diet., Know common animal nutritional problems.
    • Macronutrient functions
    • Micronutrient roles
    • Feed evaluation and properties
    • Balanced ration formulation
    • Nutritional disorders
    • Understand the functions of the main components of an animal’s diet., Understand the nutritional values and properties of different food types., Understand the feeding requirements of animals, to ensure they receive a balanced diet., Know common animal nutritional problems.
    • Digestive physiology of the horse
    • Macronutrient requirements
    • Micronutrient functions
    • Forage evaluation and quality
    • Concentrate feed types and uses
    • Feeding for life stages and work
    • Nutritional disorders and prevention
    • Nutrient functions and metabolism
    • Feedstuff evaluation and selection
    • Balanced ration formulation
    • Equine digestive physiology
    • Nutritional-related disorders
    • Macronutrient functions and metabolism
    • Feed analysis and nutritional profiling
    • Ration formulation for equines
    • Equine digestive physiology
    • Dietary deficiency and toxicity
    • Water and micronutrient requirements
    • Macronutrient and micronutrient functions
    • Nutritional analysis of feedstuffs
    • Balanced ration formulation
    • Species-specific feeding strategies
    • Common nutritional disorders
    • Ethical and legal considerations
    • Macronutrient functions and metabolism
    • Micronutrient roles and deficiency symptoms
    • Feed evaluation and nutrient profiling
    • Ration formulation and dietary balance
    • Species-specific nutritional requirements
    • Nutritional pathology and rectification
    • Understand the functions of the main components of an animal’s diet., Understand the nutritional values and properties of different food types., Understand the feeding requirements of animals, to ensure they receive a balanced diet., Know common animal nutritional problems.
    • Macronutrient functions
    • Micronutrient roles
    • Feed analysis and evaluation
    • Digestive anatomy and physiology
    • Ration formulation
    • Nutritional pathology

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