The Roman Military in the Imperial Period
This topic explores the role of temples in ancient Greek and Roman religion, focusing on their layout, use, and the function of associated officials and rituals. It covers specific Greek temples (Parthenon, Temple of Zeus at Olympia) and Roman temples (Temple of Fortuna Virilis, Pantheon), alongside the roles of priests, priestesses, and sacrificial practices.
Topic Overview
The Roman military in the Imperial period (27 BC – AD 476) was the backbone of one of history's greatest empires. Under the emperors, the army evolved from the citizen militias of the Republic into a professional, standing force. This topic explores how the military was organised, how it functioned, and its crucial role in both conquering and controlling the vast Roman Empire. You'll study the structure of the legions and auxilia, the daily life of soldiers, and the military's relationship with the emperor and society.
Understanding the Imperial Roman military is essential because it reveals how Rome maintained power for centuries. The army wasn't just a fighting force; it was a tool of political control, economic integration, and cultural Romanisation. Key figures like Augustus, Trajan, and Hadrian shaped military policy, while events such as the Year of the Four Emperors (AD 69) show the army's power to make or break emperors. This topic also connects to broader themes in Classical Civilisation, such as leadership, empire, and social hierarchy.
For your OCR GCSE, you'll need to know specific details: the difference between legions (Roman citizens) and auxilia (non-citizens), the command structure (legatus, centurions, etc.), and key reforms like Augustus's creation of the Praetorian Guard. You'll also analyse primary sources, such as Trajan's Column or the writings of Tacitus, to understand how the military was depicted and remembered. Mastering this topic will give you insight into how Rome's military might shaped the ancient world and why its legacy endures.
Key Concepts
Core ideas you must understand for this topic
- →Legion vs. Auxilia: Legions were units of Roman citizens (about 5,000 men each), while auxilia were non-citizen troops providing specialised skills like cavalry or archers. Auxiliaries gained citizenship upon discharge.
- →Command Structure: The emperor was commander-in-chief (imperator). Each legion was led by a legatus (senator), assisted by tribunes (young aristocrats) and centurions (career soldiers). The Praetorian Guard protected the emperor.
- →Equipment and Tactics: Legionaries wore lorica segmentata (plate armour) and carried a gladius (short sword) and scutum (shield). They fought in disciplined formations like the testudo (tortoise).
- →Fortifications: Roman forts (castra) were standardised with a rectangular layout, including a headquarters (principia), barracks, granaries, and baths. Hadrian's Wall is a famous example of frontier defence.
- →Military Reforms: Augustus professionalised the army with fixed pay, terms of service (16-25 years), and a pension (praemia). He also created the Praetorian Guard and established the aerarium militare (military treasury).
What You Need to Demonstrate
Key skills and knowledge for this topic
- Understanding of temple layout including the naos/cella and cult statue
- Knowledge of the position and function of the altar
- Roles and responsibilities of Greek officials (hiereus, hiereia, mantis)
- Roles and responsibilities of Roman officials (Pontiffs, Pontifex Maximus, Augurs, Vestal Virgins, Haruspex)
- Understanding the purpose and process of animal sacrifice
- Ability to compare Greek and Roman temple use and religious practices
- Knowledge of specific prescribed temples: Parthenon, Temple of Zeus at Olympia, Pantheon, Temple of Fortuna Virilis
Marking Points
Key points examiners look for in your answers
- Understanding of temple layout including the naos/cella and cult statue
- Knowledge of the position and function of the altar
- Roles and responsibilities of Greek officials (hiereus, hiereia, mantis)
- Roles and responsibilities of Roman officials (Pontiffs, Pontifex Maximus, Augurs, Vestal Virgins, Haruspex)
- Understanding the purpose and process of animal sacrifice
- Ability to compare Greek and Roman temple use and religious practices
- Knowledge of specific prescribed temples: Parthenon, Temple of Zeus at Olympia, Pantheon, Temple of Fortuna Virilis
Examiner Tips
Expert advice for maximising your marks
- 💡Ensure you can identify and describe the key features of the prescribed temples
- 💡Be prepared to compare the role of priests and priestesses in both cultures
- 💡Use specific terminology (e.g., naos, cella, hiereus, haruspex) accurately
- 💡Practice linking visual evidence from temple architecture to the literary descriptions of sacrifice
- 💡Use specific examples: When discussing military reforms, mention Augustus's settlement of veterans in colonies (e.g., Colonia Agrippinensis, modern Cologne). This shows detailed knowledge.
- 💡Analyse sources critically: For source questions, don't just describe what you see. Consider the purpose, audience, and potential bias. For example, Trajan's Column is propaganda glorifying the emperor's Dacian Wars.
- 💡Link to wider themes: Connect the military to other topics, such as the role of the emperor (e.g., how Septimius Severus increased army pay to secure loyalty) or social mobility (auxiliaries gaining citizenship).
Common Mistakes
Pitfalls to avoid in your exam answers
- Confusing the roles of specific Greek and Roman religious officials
- Failing to link the physical layout of the temple to its religious function
- Generalising religious practices without distinguishing between Greek and Roman contexts
- Neglecting to use both literary and visual/material evidence in arguments
- Misconception: All Roman soldiers were citizens. Correction: Only legionaries were citizens; auxiliaries were non-citizens who earned citizenship after 25 years of service.
- Misconception: The Roman army was always victorious. Correction: Rome suffered major defeats, such as the Battle of Teutoburg Forest (AD 9) where three legions were annihilated, leading to a shift from expansion to consolidation.
- Misconception: Roman soldiers fought in a chaotic mob. Correction: The army was highly disciplined, using formations like the maniple (earlier) and cohort (Imperial period). Training was brutal and constant.
Frequently Asked Questions
Common questions students ask about this topic
Before You Start
Prior knowledge that will help with this topic
- •The Fall of the Roman Republic: Understanding the political chaos that led to Augustus's rise and the need for a professional army.
- •Roman Social Structure: Knowing the difference between citizens, Latins, and peregrini (non-citizens) helps explain legionary vs. auxiliary status.
- •Basic Roman History Timeline: Familiarity with key emperors (Augustus, Trajan, Hadrian) and events (e.g., the Year of the Four Emperors) provides context.
Likely Command Words
How questions on this topic are typically asked
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