Tombs, graves and burial
This topic explores the role of temples in ancient Greek and Roman religion, focusing on their layout, use, and the function of associated officials and rituals. It covers specific Greek temples (Parthenon, Temple of Zeus at Olympia) and Roman temples (Temple of Fortuna Virilis, Pantheon), alongside the roles of priests, priestesses, and sacrificial practices.
Topic Overview
In Classical Civilisation, the study of tombs, graves, and burial practices reveals how the Greeks and Romans understood death, the afterlife, and social identity. For the OCR GCSE, you will examine archaeological evidence from sites like the Kerameikos cemetery in Athens and the necropoleis of Rome, alongside literary sources such as Homer's descriptions of funeral rites and Virgil's account of Aeneas' journey to the underworld. These sources show that burial was not just a practical necessity but a deeply ritualised process that reinforced family honour, civic values, and beliefs about the soul's journey.
Key themes include the distinction between inhumation (burial) and cremation, which varied over time and between cultures. In Homeric Greece, cremation was common for elite warriors, as seen in the funeral of Patroclus in the Iliad. By the Classical period, Athens favoured inhumation in family plots marked by marble lekythoi and stelae. In Rome, cremation was dominant during the Republic and early Empire, with ashes placed in cinerary urns within columbaria, before a shift back to inhumation in the 2nd century AD. These practices were tied to beliefs about the afterlife: Greeks often saw the soul as a shade in Hades, while Romans had more complex ideas involving the Manes (ancestral spirits) and the need for proper rites to avoid restless ghosts.
Understanding burial customs is essential for interpreting social hierarchy, gender roles, and cultural change. Grave goods—from pottery and jewellery to weapons and food offerings—provide clues about the deceased's status, occupation, and beliefs. Monumental tombs, such as the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus or the pyramid of Cestius in Rome, advertised wealth and achievement. By analysing these remains, you can reconstruct how ancient societies commemorated their dead and what they hoped for the afterlife. This topic also connects to wider themes in the course, such as religion, art, and the role of the family.
Key Concepts
Core ideas you must understand for this topic
- →Inhumation vs. cremation: the two main disposal methods, with cultural and chronological variations.
- →Grave goods: items buried with the dead, reflecting status, beliefs, and preparation for the afterlife.
- →Funerary monuments: stelae, tombs, and mausolea as markers of identity and memory.
- →Rituals: the prothesis (laying out), ekphora (procession), and burial/cremation, plus subsequent commemorative rites.
- →Beliefs about the afterlife: Greek Hades, Roman Manes, and the importance of proper burial for the soul's peace.
What You Need to Demonstrate
Key skills and knowledge for this topic
- Understanding of temple layout including the naos/cella and cult statue
- Knowledge of the position and function of the altar
- Roles and responsibilities of Greek officials (hiereus, hiereia, mantis)
- Roles and responsibilities of Roman officials (Pontiffs, Pontifex Maximus, Augurs, Vestal Virgins, Haruspex)
- Understanding the purpose and process of animal sacrifice
- Ability to compare Greek and Roman temple use and religious practices
- Knowledge of specific prescribed temples: Parthenon, Temple of Zeus at Olympia, Pantheon, Temple of Fortuna Virilis
Marking Points
Key points examiners look for in your answers
- Understanding of temple layout including the naos/cella and cult statue
- Knowledge of the position and function of the altar
- Roles and responsibilities of Greek officials (hiereus, hiereia, mantis)
- Roles and responsibilities of Roman officials (Pontiffs, Pontifex Maximus, Augurs, Vestal Virgins, Haruspex)
- Understanding the purpose and process of animal sacrifice
- Ability to compare Greek and Roman temple use and religious practices
- Knowledge of specific prescribed temples: Parthenon, Temple of Zeus at Olympia, Pantheon, Temple of Fortuna Virilis
Examiner Tips
Expert advice for maximising your marks
- 💡Ensure you can identify and describe the key features of the prescribed temples
- 💡Be prepared to compare the role of priests and priestesses in both cultures
- 💡Use specific terminology (e.g., naos, cella, hiereus, haruspex) accurately
- 💡Practice linking visual evidence from temple architecture to the literary descriptions of sacrifice
- 💡Use specific examples from the prescribed sources, such as the Kerameikos cemetery or the Tomb of the Scipios, to support your points. Naming sites and artefacts shows detailed knowledge.
- 💡Compare and contrast Greek and Roman practices explicitly. For instance, note that both cultures held funerary feasts, but Roman meals (silicernium) were more elaborate and involved the whole community.
- 💡Link burial practices to social status and gender. For example, Athenian women's graves often contained jewellery and mirrors, while men's had strigils or weapons. This demonstrates analytical depth.
Common Mistakes
Pitfalls to avoid in your exam answers
- Confusing the roles of specific Greek and Roman religious officials
- Failing to link the physical layout of the temple to its religious function
- Generalising religious practices without distinguishing between Greek and Roman contexts
- Neglecting to use both literary and visual/material evidence in arguments
- Misconception: All Greeks and Romans believed in a pleasant afterlife. Correction: Many saw the afterlife as a gloomy existence in Hades or the underworld; only mystery cults (e.g., Eleusinian) offered hope of a better fate.
- Misconception: Cremation was always preferred over burial. Correction: Practices varied; for example, in Classical Athens inhumation was common, while in Rome cremation was standard until the 2nd century AD.
- Misconception: Grave goods were purely practical. Correction: They often had symbolic meaning, such as coins for Charon's fee, or items to signify the deceased's role in life (e.g., tools, weapons).
Frequently Asked Questions
Common questions students ask about this topic
Before You Start
Prior knowledge that will help with this topic
- •Basic knowledge of Greek and Roman religion, including gods of the underworld (Hades, Pluto, Persephone).
- •Understanding of social hierarchy in ancient Greece and Rome (citizens, slaves, women, etc.).
- •Familiarity with Homer's Iliad and Virgil's Aeneid, as they contain key funerary scenes.
Likely Command Words
How questions on this topic are typically asked
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