Sovereignty of ocean resources — Eduqas A-Level Geography

The sovereignty of ocean resources refers to the legal and political control that states exercise over the seas and their resources, including fish, oil, gas, and minerals. This topic is central to political geography and maritime law, as it determines how nations claim, use, and manage ocean spaces. Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), coastal states have sovereign rights over a 200-nautical-mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), where they can exploit resources. Beyond this, the high seas are considered global commons, but disputes often arise over overlapping claims, such as in the South China Sea or the Arctic.

Understanding ocean sovereignty is crucial because it affects global trade, food security, energy supplies, and environmental sustainability. For example, overfishing in international waters highlights the tension between national interests and collective stewardship. The topic also links to geopolitics, as powerful states use naval forces to assert claims, and to development, as small island states rely on ocean resources for their economies. In the WJEC A-Level Geography syllabus, this topic fits within the 'Global Governance' theme, showing how international laws and institutions shape human-environment interactions.

Students should grasp that sovereignty is not absolute; it is negotiated through treaties, contested through disputes, and influenced by physical geography (e.g., continental shelves). The concept of 'freedom of the seas' versus 'territorial waters' is key, as is the role of bodies like the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea. By studying this, students learn how power, law, and geography intersect in managing a finite and fragile resource.

• →UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea): The primary international treaty defining maritime zones, including territorial seas (12 nautical miles), contiguous zones (24 nm), EEZs (200 nm), and the high seas. It grants coastal states sovereign rights over resources within their EEZ.
• →Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): A sea zone where a state has special rights to explore and exploit marine resources, including fishing and oil drilling. The EEZ does not grant full sovereignty but allows economic control.
• →Continental Shelf: The seabed and subsoil extending beyond the EEZ, up to 350 nm, where coastal states can claim rights to mineral resources. This is often a source of conflict, e.g., in the Arctic.
• →Freedom of the High Seas: The principle that the high seas are open to all states for navigation, fishing, and research, but subject to regulations to prevent overexploitation and pollution.
• →Maritime Disputes: Conflicts arising from overlapping claims, such as the South China Sea dispute involving China, Vietnam, and the Philippines, often driven by resource wealth and strategic shipping lanes.

• Distribution and ownership of major ocean resources (minerals and fossil fuels).
• Establishment and reproduction of territorial limits and sovereign rights.
• Geopolitical tensions regarding contested ownership of islands and surrounding seabeds.
• Attempts to establish ownership of Arctic Ocean resources.
• Injustices arising from unequal access to ocean resources.
• Geographical consequences for landlocked countries.
• Geographical consequences for indigenous people in coastal areas.

• 💡Ensure you can explain how territorial limits benefit some states over others.
• 💡Use specific examples of contested islands or seabed areas to illustrate geopolitical tensions.
• 💡Clearly distinguish between the impacts on landlocked nations versus coastal indigenous communities.
• 💡Link the concept of sovereignty to the broader theme of global governance and the Earth's oceans.
• 💡Use specific case studies to illustrate concepts, such as the South China Sea dispute or the Arctic's melting ice opening new resource claims. Examiners reward detailed, real-world examples that show understanding of complexity.
• 💡Define key terms like 'sovereignty', 'EEZ', and 'UNCLOS' precisely in your answers. Avoid vague language; instead, explain how these concepts apply to a given scenario, e.g., 'Under UNCLOS, the UK has sovereign rights to fish within its 200 nm EEZ, but must negotiate with the EU for shared stocks.'
• 💡Evaluate the effectiveness of international governance. For top marks, discuss strengths (e.g., UNCLOS provides a legal framework) and weaknesses (e.g., enforcement is weak, disputes persist). Show awareness of different perspectives, such as those of developed vs. developing states.

• Confusing territorial limits with general maritime boundaries without referencing sovereign rights.
• Failing to link resource ownership to specific geopolitical tensions.
• Overlooking the specific impacts on landlocked countries.
• Generalizing ocean resource issues without addressing the specific context of the Arctic or contested islands.
• Misconception: 'A country owns the water in its EEZ.' Correction: The EEZ only gives rights to resources (fish, oil) and jurisdiction over certain activities; the water itself remains international, and other states have freedom of navigation.
• Misconception: 'The high seas are lawless.' Correction: While no single state governs the high seas, international laws (e.g., UNCLOS, regional fisheries agreements) regulate activities like fishing and pollution, though enforcement is challenging.
• Misconception: 'All ocean resources are shared equally.' Correction: Resources within EEZs are owned by the coastal state, but resources on the high seas are considered 'common heritage of mankind' (e.g., deep-sea minerals), managed by the International Seabed Authority.