Paper 2, Option 2D.2: The unification of Germany, c1840–71 - 2 Failure of revolution, 1848–51 — Edexcel A-Level History
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Paper 2, Option 2D.2: The unification of Germany, c1840–71 - 2 Failure of revolution, 1848–51 explained
Paper 2, Option 2D.2: The unification of Germany, c1840–71 - 2 Failure of revolution, 1848–51 covers 4 specification points, including Vorparlament; the nature and work of the… and Events in Berlin and the response of Frederick….
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The Frankfurt Parliament, 1848–49: Vorparlament; the nature and work of the Frankfurt Assembly, including disagreements and the Fifty Articles; the collapse of the Assembly; significance of weaknesses and political divisions.
The Frankfurt Parliament emerged from the Vorparlament, a preparatory meeting in March–April 1848 that arranged elections for a national assembly. Dominated by educated middle-class liberals, the Assembly debated a constitution for a united Germany. Disagreements arose over boundaries, whether to include Austria, and the powers of the crown. The Assembly drafted the Fifty Articles, a declaration of fundamental rights, while a separate June 1848 law established a temporary central authority under Archduke John. The Assembly collapsed in 1849 when Frederick William IV refused the crown and troops dissolved it. Its weaknesses—lack of power, divisions, and reliance on princes—highlighted the failure of liberal nationalism.
Revolution in Prussia, 1848–49: events in Berlin and the response of Frederick William IV; liberal government, conservative reaction and counter-revolution; the Prussian constitution.
In March 1848, crowds in Berlin erected barricades and clashed with troops, forcing Frederick William IV to withdraw the military and make concessions. He appointed liberal ministries under Ludolf Camphausen and Rudolf von Auerswald. However, conservative reaction grew, supported by the Junker class and the army. By late 1848, troops under General Wrangel reoccupied Berlin and dissolved the Prussian Assembly. In December 1848, Frederick William IV imposed a constitution retaining royal authority but initially providing universal male suffrage. This was amended in May 1849 to introduce a three-class voting system, ensuring conservative dominance. Thus the revolution in Prussia ended with a strengthened monarchy and limited liberal gains.
Reasons for failure of the revolutions: counter-revolution and the strength of conservative forces across Germany; the revival of Habsburg power in Austria; weaknesses of, and divisions amongst, revolutionaries.
The 1848–49 revolutions failed because conservative forces retained decisive power. Monarchs kept their armies: Prussian troops under Wrangel bloodlessly occupied Berlin in November 1848 to dissolve the assembly. Austrian forces under Windischgrätz retook Vienna. The Frankfurt Assembly had no troops or taxes. The revival of Habsburg power followed military victory and Franz Joseph's accession; Schwarzenberg imposed the 1849 constitution and, with Russian help, restored order in Hungary. Revolutionaries suffered from weaknesses and divisions: liberals wanted constitutional monarchy, democrats a republic, and nationalists disagreed over Grossdeutsch and Kleindeutsch solutions. Social fear of workers pushed liberals towards the princes.
The political impact of the German revolutions: the ambitions of Prussia and Austria, 1849–51; re- establishment of the German Confederation; significance of revolutionary failure for German nationalism and liberalism.
After 1849 Prussia and Austria competed for leadership in Germany. Prussia's Erfurt Union of 1850 aimed to unite German states under Prussian direction, but Austria opposed it. At Olmütz in November 1850 Prussia backed down, accepting the revival of the German Confederation, restored in 1851 under Austrian presidency. This restored the pre-1848 order, with the Bundestag at Frankfurt and Austria dominant. For nationalism, failure discredited the idealist route to unity and shifted attention towards Prussian power politics, as later seen in Bismarck's policies. For liberalism, the collapse of the Frankfurt Assembly showed that constitutions could not be won without power; many liberals turned to realism, while some retained hopes of gradual reform. The 1848–49 experience thus shaped the agenda of the 1850s and 1860s.
Your focus
- Students can describe the origins and composition of the Frankfurt Assembly from the Vorparlament.
- Students can explain the main disagreements and the purpose of the Fifty Articles as fundamental rights.
- Students can evaluate the reasons for the Assembly's collapse and its significance for German unification.
Show all 12 objectives
- Students can narrate the key events of the Berlin revolution and the response of Frederick William IV.
- Students can explain the nature of liberal government and the subsequent conservative reaction in Prussia.
- Students can assess the significance of the Prussian constitution for the outcome of the 1848–49 revolution.
- Explain how conservative control of armed force contributed to counter-revolution and revolutionary failure.
- Analyse the process by which Habsburg authority was restored in Austria and Hungary.
- Evaluate the relative importance of weaknesses of, and divisions amongst, revolutionaries in explaining failure.
- Explain the aims and failure of Prussia's Erfurt Union.
- Analyse how the German Confederation was restored and why Austria benefited.
- Evaluate the consequences of revolutionary failure for German nationalism and liberalism.
Paper 2, Option 2D.2: The unification of Germany, c1840–71 - 2 Failure of revolution, 1848–51 exam tips
Marking Points
- Explains the role of the Vorparlament in preparing for elections and setting the agenda for a national assembly.
- Describes the social composition and political outlook of the Frankfurt Assembly, noting the predominance of liberal professionals and the absence of radical workers.
- Analyses key disagreements, such as the debate over Grossdeutschland versus Kleindeutschland and the conflict between liberals and radicals.
- Explains the purpose and content of the Fifty Articles as a declaration of fundamental rights, distinguishing them from the creation of the central authority.
- Assesses the reasons for the collapse, including the refusal of Frederick William IV to accept the crown and the withdrawal of Austrian and Prussian deputies.
- Evaluates the significance of the Assembly's weaknesses and political divisions for the broader failure of the 1848 revolutions in Germany.
- Describes the March events in Berlin, including the barricades, the role of the crowds, and the initial withdrawal of troops by Frederick William IV.
- Explains the response of Frederick William IV, such as his promises of reform and his appointment of a liberal ministry.
- Analyses the nature of liberal government in Prussia, including the Camphausen and Auerswald ministries and their limited achievements.
- Explains the conservative reaction and counter-revolution, including the role of the army, the Junkers, and the reoccupation of Berlin.
- Describes the Prussian constitution of December 1848, noting its authoritarian features and universal male suffrage, and its subsequent amendment to a three-class voting system in May 1849.
- Evaluates the extent to which the revolution in Prussia failed to achieve liberal and democratic aims.
- Explains that conservative forces retained control of armies, bureaucracies and finances, so revolutionary assemblies could not enforce decisions.
- Uses specific evidence of counter-revolution, such as Wrangel's bloodless occupation of Berlin, Windischgrätz at Vienna, Radetzky in Italy or Prince Wilhelm's Prussian forces in Baden.
- Explains the revival of Habsburg power through military victories, the accession of Franz Joseph and Schwarzenberg's ministry (including the imposed March 1849 constitution and Russian help against Hungary).
- Analyses weaknesses of, and divisions amongst, revolutionaries: liberal against democrat aims, middle-class fear of popular violence, and Grossdeutsch versus Kleindeutsch disagreement.
- Reaches a supported judgement on which factor was most significant, weighing conservative strength against revolutionary weakness.
- Explains Prussia's ambition to lead Germany through the Erfurt Union and its failure at Olmütz in 1850.
- Explains Austria's determination to restore its presidency of the German Confederation and the re-establishment of the Bundestag in 1851.
- Assesses the significance of failure for nationalism, including the shift from liberal idealism towards power politics.
- Assesses the significance of failure for liberalism, including disillusionment, realism and continued support for gradual reform.
- Reaches a judgement on how far 1849–51 reshaped German politics, linking the period to later unification.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Use precise dates and names, such as the Vorparlament of 31 March–3 April 1848 and the Fifty Articles, to demonstrate contextual knowledge.
- 💡When discussing weaknesses, link them to specific consequences, for example how the lack of military force made the Assembly dependent on Prussian and Austrian cooperation.
- 💡Compare the Assembly's aims with its achievements to reach a balanced judgement on its significance, rather than listing failures alone.
- 💡Use specific dates, such as 18–19 March 1848 for the Berlin barricades and 5 December 1848 for the constitution, to show precise knowledge.
- 💡When discussing the response of Frederick William IV, distinguish between his initial concessions and his later reversal to demonstrate understanding of his changing strategy.
- 💡Link the Prussian events to the wider German revolution, for example by noting how the Prussian king's refusal of the imperial crown in 1849 also undermined the Frankfurt Assembly.
- 💡Plan by factor, then integrate evidence within each paragraph rather than narrating events chronologically.
- 💡Deploy precise names, dates and places to support causal claims about conservative strength.
- 💡Use the terms Grossdeutsch and Kleindeutsch accurately when discussing Prussia and Austria.
- 💡Link the 1849–51 settlement to later developments to show significance over time.
- 💡Support claims about liberalism with evidence of liberal responses, not just assembly failure.
Common Mistakes
- Error: treating the Frankfurt Assembly as a sovereign government with executive power. Correction: it was a deliberative body whose decrees lacked enforcement, relying on the goodwill of individual states.
- Error: assuming all delegates shared identical aims. Correction: liberals, democrats, and conservatives clashed over the pace of change, the role of monarchy, and national boundaries.
- Error: conflating the Fifty Articles with a provisional constitution establishing central authority. Correction: the Fifty Articles were fundamental rights; central authority under Archduke John was created by a separate June 1848 law.
- Error: assuming Frederick William IV was a committed liberal. Correction: he made tactical concessions under pressure but remained attached to divine right monarchy and later reasserted royal authority.
- Error: claiming the December 1848 constitution introduced the three-class voting system. Correction: the December constitution provided universal male suffrage; the three-class franchise was introduced in May 1849.
- Error: treating the counter-revolution as solely a military event. Correction: it also involved political manoeuvring, such as the appointment of conservative ministers and the dissolution of the Prussian Assembly.
- Treating the revolution as a single event rather than a series of regional risings with different outcomes; correct by dating and locating each episode.
- Assuming the Frankfurt Assembly was a government with power; correct by noting it lacked troops, revenue and an administrative apparatus.
- Conflating the March 1848 Berlin rising with Wrangel's November 1848 actions; correct by noting the March rising led to troop withdrawal, whereas Wrangel's later occupation was bloodless and dissolved the assembly.
- Confusing the Erfurt Union with the Frankfurt Assembly; correct by distinguishing Prussia's 1850 union project from the 1848–49 assembly.
- Treating Olmütz as a military defeat; correct by describing it as a diplomatic humiliation in which Prussia abandoned the union.
- Claiming nationalism disappeared after 1849; correct by arguing it was redirected rather than destroyed.