Russia and the Soviet Union, 1917–41
This topic covers the collapse of the Tsarist regime in early 1917, the subsequent failure of the Provisional Government, and the rise of the Bolsheviks to power in the October Revolution.
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Topic Overview
This topic covers the dramatic transformation of Russia from the Tsarist autocracy to the world's first communist state, and its evolution into the Stalinist Soviet Union. You will explore the causes and events of the 1917 February and October Revolutions, the Russian Civil War, and the establishment of Bolshevik control under Lenin. The course then examines the power struggle after Lenin's death, Stalin's rise to sole power, and his radical policies of industrialisation, collectivisation, and political terror. Understanding this period is crucial because it shaped the USSR's role as a global superpower and provides key insights into how revolutionary regimes consolidate power.
The topic is divided into three key phases: the revolutions of 1917, the Civil War and War Communism (1918–21), and the Stalinist transformation (1928–41). You will need to analyse the causes and consequences of key events, such as Bloody Sunday, the October Revolution, and the Great Purge. You should also evaluate the impact of policies like the New Economic Policy (NEP) and the Five-Year Plans on different social groups, including peasants, workers, and women. This topic is assessed through source analysis and essay questions, so you must be able to use specific evidence to support arguments.
Mastery of this topic requires understanding the interplay between ideology, personality, and circumstance. For example, Lenin's pragmatism (NEP) contrasts with Stalin's ideological rigidity (collectivisation). You should also consider the human cost of industrialisation and the role of propaganda and fear in maintaining Stalin's control. This period is a classic case study in how revolutions can devour their own children, as seen in the show trials and purges of the 1930s.
Key Concepts
Core ideas you must understand for this topic
- →Autocracy: A system of government where one person (the Tsar) holds absolute power, as in Tsarist Russia. The 1905 Revolution forced the creation of the Duma, but the Tsar retained ultimate control.
- →Bolshevism: A revolutionary Marxist ideology led by Lenin, advocating for a small, disciplined party to lead the proletariat in overthrowing capitalism. Key ideas include 'democratic centralism' and the 'dictatorship of the proletariat'.
- →War Communism: The economic policy during the Civil War (1918–21) that nationalised industry, requisitioned grain from peasants, and banned private trade. It caused famine and was replaced by the NEP.
- →Collectivisation: Stalin's policy (1928–40) to merge individual peasant farms into large, state-controlled collective farms (kolkhozy). It aimed to increase grain production for industrialisation but led to widespread resistance and the Holodomor famine in Ukraine.
- →The Great Purge: A campaign of political repression in the USSR (1936–38) where Stalin eliminated perceived enemies, including old Bolsheviks, military leaders, and ordinary citizens. It involved show trials, executions, and the Gulag system.
What You Need to Demonstrate
Key skills and knowledge for this topic
- The impact of the First World War on Russia (military, economic, social, political).
- The February Revolution: events in Petrograd, strikes, army mutiny, and the Tsar's abdication.
- The Provisional Government: 'Dual Control', Soviet Order Number 1, and the role of Kerensky.
- Weaknesses and failures of the Provisional Government.
- The Kornilov Revolt and its significance.
- Lenin's return, the April Theses, and the growth of Bolshevik support.
- The 'July Days'.
- The Bolshevik seizure of power in October 1917.
Marking Points
Key points examiners look for in your answers
- The impact of the First World War on Russia (military, economic, social, political).
- The February Revolution: events in Petrograd, strikes, army mutiny, and the Tsar's abdication.
- The Provisional Government: 'Dual Control', Soviet Order Number 1, and the role of Kerensky.
- Weaknesses and failures of the Provisional Government.
- The Kornilov Revolt and its significance.
- Lenin's return, the April Theses, and the growth of Bolshevik support.
- The 'July Days'.
- The Bolshevik seizure of power in October 1917.
- Reasons for Bolshevik success, including the roles of Lenin and Trotsky.
Examiner Tips
Expert advice for maximising your marks
- 💡Ensure you can explain the 'causation' of the revolutions, linking long-term discontent with short-term triggers like the First World War.
- 💡Use specific terminology such as 'Dual Control', 'April Theses', and 'Soviet Order Number 1' to demonstrate subject knowledge.
- 💡When discussing the Bolshevik seizure of power, focus on the specific reasons for their success rather than just describing the events.
- 💡Practice linking the weaknesses of the Provisional Government directly to the opportunities created for the Bolsheviks.
- 💡Use specific dates and statistics to show detailed knowledge. For example, 'The First Five-Year Plan (1928–32) saw coal production rise from 35 million to 64 million tonnes.' This demonstrates precise recall and impresses examiners.
- 💡When analysing sources, always consider the provenance: who wrote it, when, and why? For example, a Soviet poster from 1930 glorifying collectivisation is propaganda, not objective evidence. Cross-reference with other sources to build a balanced argument.
- 💡For essay questions, structure your answer with clear paragraphs, each focusing on a different factor (e.g., economic, social, political). Use the 'PEEL' method: Point, Evidence, Explanation, Link back to the question. Always conclude by weighing up the most important factor.
Common Mistakes
Pitfalls to avoid in your exam answers
- Confusing the February and October Revolutions.
- Failing to explain the significance of 'Dual Control' between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet.
- Overlooking the impact of the First World War as a catalyst for both revolutions.
- Attributing the Bolshevik success solely to Lenin without acknowledging the role of Trotsky or the failures of the Provisional Government.
- Misconception: The February Revolution was a planned Bolshevik uprising. Correction: The February Revolution was largely spontaneous, triggered by food shortages and protests in Petrograd. The Bolsheviks were not the main organisers; they were initially caught off guard.
- Misconception: Stalin's Five-Year Plans were a complete success. Correction: While industrial output grew rapidly (e.g., coal and steel), the plans were inefficient, with poor quality goods and neglect of consumer industries. The human cost was enormous, including millions of deaths from famine and overwork.
- Misconception: The NEP was a return to capitalism. Correction: The NEP was a temporary compromise that allowed limited private enterprise and market trade, but the state retained control of 'commanding heights' (banks, heavy industry). It was not capitalism but a 'strategic retreat' to revive the economy.
Frequently Asked Questions
Common questions students ask about this topic
Before You Start
Prior knowledge that will help with this topic
- •A basic understanding of the causes of the 1905 Russian Revolution, including the Russo-Japanese War and Bloody Sunday. This provides context for the weaknesses of Tsarist rule.
- •Familiarity with Marxist ideology and the concept of class struggle. This helps explain Bolshevik aims and why they appealed to workers and soldiers.
- •Knowledge of World War I's impact on Russia, such as military defeats, economic strain, and the Tsar's unpopular decision to take personal command of the army. This is crucial for understanding the February Revolution.
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