Question 1

What is the difference between sex and gender in psychology?

Accepted Answer

In psychology, sex refers to biological differences between males and females, such as chromosomes (XX for females, XY for males), reproductive anatomy, and hormone profiles. Gender, on the other hand, encompasses the psychological, social, and cultural attributes associated with being male or female—such as traits, behaviours, and roles. For example, a person may be biologically male but have a feminine gender identity. This distinction is crucial in gender studies because it underpins debates about nature (biological determinism) versus nurture (social constructionism) in shaping our identity.

Question 2

How is androgyny measured in psychology?

Accepted Answer

Androgyny is typically measured using the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), devised by Sandra Bem in 1974. The BSRI asks respondents to rate themselves on 60 personality traits—20 stereotypically masculine (e.g., assertive, dominant), 20 feminine (e.g., compassionate, gentle), and 20 neutral filler items. Scores on the masculinity and femininity scales are calculated separately. Individuals who score highly on both scales are classified as androgynous. Bem argued that androgyny offers psychological advantages, such as greater adaptability and mental health, because such individuals can draw upon a wider range of traits as situations demand.

Question 3

What is gender schema theory in simple terms?

Accepted Answer

Gender schema theory, proposed by Martin and Halverson (1981), suggests that children develop ‘schemas’—organised mental structures—about gender as soon as they can label their own sex (around age 2–3). These schemas contain ideas about what activities, clothes, and behaviours are appropriate for each gender. Once established, schemas influence how children perceive the world: they preferentially attend to and remember information that fits their existing schemas (schema-consistent) and ignore or distort schema-inconsistent information. This theory helps explain why young children often strongly resist crossing gender-typed boundaries, such as a boy refusing to play with dolls, even in the absence of direct reinforcement.

Question 4

Is gender dysphoria caused by biological or social factors?

Accepted Answer

Gender dysphoria (previously called gender identity disorder) is a complex condition where an individual experiences distress due to a mismatch between their biological sex and their gender identity. There is no single cause, and explanations span both biological and social perspectives. Biological explanations include genetic vulnerability (twin studies show higher concordance in identical twins), prenatal hormone exposure (e.g., exposure to unusual androgen levels in utero), and brain sex theory (differences in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis). Social explanations focus on psychological processes such as cognitive development theories (e.g., Stoller’s view that extreme parental attitudes can shape gender identity) and social learning (reinforcement of cross-gender behaviours). Current consensus suggests a biopsychosocial model—interacting biological predispositions and environmental factors—offers the best understanding.

Question 5

How do I answer a 16-mark question on gender in the exam?

Accepted Answer

For a 16-mark essay (AO1 = 6 marks, AO3 = 10 marks), start by outlining the key points of the theory or explanation in the question—be selective and include precise terminology and relevant studies. For example, if asked about Kohlberg’s theory, describe the three stages with ages and a supporting study (e.g., Slaby & Frey, 1975). Then spend the majority of your answer evaluating: present at least three well-developed paragraphs discussing strengths and limitations, such as supporting research, cultural validity, methodological issues, contradictory evidence, and links to issues and debates (e.g., nature vs. nurture, determinism). Always end with a brief conclusion that weighs up the overall value of the explanation. Time management is crucial: allocate about 20–25 minutes, plan briefly, and aim for around 400–450 words.

Question 6

What are the main criticisms of Freud’s theory of gender development?

Accepted Answer

Freud’s psychodynamic theory, centred on the Oedipus complex in boys and the Electra complex in girls, faces several major criticisms. First, it lacks empirical evidence—the concepts (e.g., unconscious castration anxiety) are unfalsifiable and based on case studies of adults rather than systematic child observation. Second, the theory is androcentric; it treats male development as the norm and portrays female development as inferior (‘penis envy’). Third, many contemporary psychologists argue that Freud underestimated social and cognitive factors, which are better explained by social learning or gender schema theories. Finally, if Freud were correct, growing up without a same-sex parent (as in single-parent or same-sex parent families) should severely impair gender development, but research (e.g., Golombok et al.) shows no such deficit, challenging the theory’s validity.

Gender

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How to Revise Gender — AQA A-Level Psychology

Examiner Tips for Gender

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