Question 1

What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning?

Accepted Answer

Classical conditioning involves learning through association, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response (e.g., Pavlov's dogs salivating to a bell). Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences, where behaviour is shaped by reinforcement (increasing behaviour) or punishment (decreasing behaviour). In operant conditioning, the learner actively operates on the environment, whereas in classical conditioning, the response is involuntary.

Question 2

How do I evaluate the cognitive approach in an exam?

Accepted Answer

To evaluate the cognitive approach, discuss its strengths: it uses scientific methods (e.g., lab experiments, brain scans) and has practical applications (e.g., cognitive therapy for depression). Limitations include the use of artificial tasks lacking ecological validity, and the approach being mechanistic (ignoring emotion and motivation). You can also compare it to the biological approach (e.g., cognitive neuroscience) or the humanistic approach (e.g., focus on subjective experience).

Question 3

What are demand characteristics and how can they be controlled?

Accepted Answer

Demand characteristics are cues in a study that lead participants to guess the aim and alter their behaviour accordingly. They can be controlled by using single-blind or double-blind procedures, deception (with ethical approval), or naturalistic observations. For example, in a memory experiment, using a cover story about 'verbal ability' can prevent participants from focusing on memory strategies.

Question 4

Why is the humanistic approach considered less scientific?

Accepted Answer

The humanistic approach is considered less scientific because it rejects the scientific method's emphasis on objectivity and measurement. It focuses on subjective experience (e.g., self-actualisation, free will) which is difficult to operationalise and test empirically. Concepts like 'self-concept' are often assessed through qualitative methods like interviews, which lack reliability and generalisability. However, its proponents argue that it provides a more holistic understanding of human behaviour.

Question 5

What is the difference between a repeated measures design and an independent groups design?

Accepted Answer

In a repeated measures design, the same participants take part in all conditions of the experiment, controlling for individual differences but risking order effects (e.g., practice or fatigue). In an independent groups design, different participants are used in each condition, avoiding order effects but introducing participant variables (e.g., age, IQ) that may confound results. Each design has its own strengths and limitations, and the choice depends on the research question.

Question 6

How do I calculate standard deviation and what does it tell me?

Accepted Answer

Standard deviation measures the spread of scores around the mean. To calculate it: find the mean, subtract the mean from each score and square the result, sum these squared differences, divide by the number of scores (for a population) or n-1 (for a sample), then take the square root. A small standard deviation indicates scores are clustered closely around the mean (consistent data), while a large one indicates more variability. It is more informative than the range because it uses all data points.

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Introductory topics in Psychology — AQA A-Level Psychology Revision

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