Relationships — AQA A-Level Psychology Revision

    This topic explores the psychological explanations for human romantic relationships, including evolutionary, social, and cognitive theories, as well as the

    Topic Synopsis

    This topic explores the psychological explanations for human romantic relationships, including evolutionary, social, and cognitive theories, as well as the dynamics of relationship breakdown and the nature of virtual and parasocial relationships.

    Key Concepts & Core Principles

    Exam Tips & Revision Strategies

    Common Misconceptions & Mistakes to Avoid

    Examiner Marking Points

    Relationships

    AQA
    A-Level

    This topic explores the psychological explanations for human romantic relationships, including evolutionary, social, and cognitive theories, as well as the dynamics of relationship breakdown and the nature of virtual and parasocial relationships.

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    Objectives
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    Exam Tips
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    Pitfalls
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    Key Terms
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    Mark Points

    Topic Overview

    The 'Relationships' topic in AQA A-Level Psychology explores the formation, maintenance, and breakdown of romantic relationships, drawing on evolutionary, cognitive, and social psychological perspectives. It examines why we form relationships, how they develop and change over time, and why they sometimes end. This topic is crucial for understanding human social behaviour and has real-world applications in counselling, education, and personal development.

    Within the specification, you will study theories such as the evolutionary explanation for partner preferences (including sexual selection and parental investment theory), the filter theory of relationship formation, and social exchange theory (including equity theory) for maintenance. You will also cover Duck's phase model of relationship breakdown, and virtual relationships in online contexts. Additionally, parasocial relationships (one-sided attachments to media figures) are examined, linking to attachment theory and the absorption-addiction model.

    This topic builds on earlier work in social psychology and attachment, and it is assessed through multiple-choice, short-answer, and extended writing questions (including 16-mark essays). Mastering this content requires understanding both classic studies (e.g., Buss, 1989; Hatfield et al., 1979) and contemporary research, as well as being able to evaluate theories with strengths, limitations, and practical applications.

    Key Concepts

    Core ideas you must understand for this topic

    • →Sexual selection: The evolutionary process where certain traits become more common because they increase mating success. Includes intrasexual selection (competition within a sex) and intersexual selection (mate choice).
    • →Filter theory (Kerckhoff & Davis, 1962): Proposes that relationships develop through three filters – social demography, similarity of attitudes and values, and complementarity of needs.
    • →Social exchange theory: Views relationships as a cost-benefit analysis, where satisfaction depends on the perceived rewards minus costs, and commitment is influenced by comparison level (CL) and comparison level for alternatives (CLalt).
    • →Equity theory (Walster et al., 1978): Argues that fairness is key; partners are most satisfied when the ratio of inputs to outcomes is equal. Inequity leads to distress and attempts to restore equity.
    • →Duck's phase model of relationship breakdown: Describes four phases – intrapsychic (brooding), dyadic (confrontation), social (gossip), and grave-dressing (post-breakup story).

    What You Need to Demonstrate

    Key skills and knowledge for this topic

    • Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences (sexual selection and reproductive behaviour)
    • Factors affecting attraction (self-disclosure, physical attractiveness/matching hypothesis, filter theory)
    • Theories of romantic relationships (social exchange theory, equity theory, Rusbult’s investment model)
    • Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown
    • Virtual relationships in social media (self-disclosure, absence of gating)
    • Parasocial relationships (levels, absorption-addiction model, attachment theory explanation)

    Marking Points

    Key points examiners look for in your answers

    • Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences (sexual selection and reproductive behaviour)
    • Factors affecting attraction (self-disclosure, physical attractiveness/matching hypothesis, filter theory)
    • Theories of romantic relationships (social exchange theory, equity theory, Rusbult’s investment model)
    • Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown
    • Virtual relationships in social media (self-disclosure, absence of gating)
    • Parasocial relationships (levels, absorption-addiction model, attachment theory explanation)

    Examiner Tips

    Expert advice for maximising your marks

    • 💡Ensure you can clearly distinguish between social exchange theory and equity theory
    • 💡Use specific terminology when discussing virtual relationships, particularly the 'absence of gating'
    • 💡When evaluating theories, always link back to the specific context of romantic relationships
    • 💡Be prepared to apply knowledge of research methods to the studies cited in this topic
    • 💡When evaluating theories, always include both strengths and limitations. For example, for evolutionary explanations, mention supporting cross-cultural evidence (Buss, 1989) but also criticise the gender stereotype bias and the neglect of social and cultural factors.
    • 💡Use specific research studies to support your points. For instance, when discussing equity theory, refer to Hatfield et al. (1979) who found that newlyweds with equitable relationships were more satisfied. This shows you know the evidence.
    • 💡For 16-mark essays, plan your answer to include a clear introduction, several paragraphs each covering a different theory or study, and a conclusion that evaluates the overall topic. Use the 'describe, explain, evaluate' structure for each point.

    Common Mistakes

    Pitfalls to avoid in your exam answers

    • Confusing the different phases in Duck's model of relationship breakdown
    • Failing to distinguish between the absorption-addiction model and attachment theory explanations for parasocial relationships
    • Over-relying on descriptive accounts of theories rather than evaluating their empirical support
    • Misapplying the filter theory stages (social demography, similarity in attitudes, complementarity)
    • Misconception: The evolutionary explanation suggests that all mate preferences are universal. Correction: While some preferences (e.g., youth in females, resources in males) are cross-cultural, there is variation due to cultural and environmental factors. Buss's (1989) study found differences across 37 cultures.
    • Misconception: Social exchange theory predicts that people always leave relationships when costs exceed rewards. Correction: People may stay due to high investment (e.g., children, shared assets) or lack of alternatives, even if the relationship is unsatisfying. This is captured by the investment model (Rusbult, 1980).
    • Misconception: Parasocial relationships are always unhealthy. Correction: They can be normal and even beneficial (e.g., providing companionship or inspiration). The absorption-addiction model distinguishes between 'entertainment-social' and 'intense-personal' levels, with only the latter being pathological.

    Frequently Asked Questions

    Common questions students ask about this topic

    Before You Start

    Prior knowledge that will help with this topic

    • •Attachment theory (A-Level Psychology): Understanding of Bowlby's monotropic theory and Ainsworth's Strange Situation helps with parasocial relationships and the evolutionary basis of attachment.
    • •Research methods: Knowledge of experimental designs, correlations, and self-report techniques is essential for evaluating studies on relationships.
    • •Social influence (optional but helpful): Concepts like conformity and obedience can be linked to relationship formation and maintenance.

    Key Terminology

    Essential terms to know

    Likely Command Words

    How questions on this topic are typically asked

    Outline
    Explain
    Discuss
    Evaluate
    Apply

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