Free will and moral responsibility — AQA A-Level Religious Studies

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Free will and moral responsibility explained

This topic explores the philosophical and ethical dimensions of free will and moral responsibility, examining the conditions required for moral accountability and the extent to which human actions are determined or free.

What to demonstrate

Conditions of moral responsibility: free will and understanding the difference between right and wrong
The extent of moral responsibility: libertarianism, hard determinism, and compatibilism
The relevance of moral responsibility to reward and punishment

Free will and moral responsibility exam tips

Quick Revision Summary (Key Takeaway)

Free will and moral responsibility in AQA A-Level Religious Studies explores the philosophical debate between libertarianism, determinism, and compatibilism, examining whether humans can act freely and be morally accountable for their actions. This topic critically evaluates key thinkers like Kant, Hume, and Strawson, and applies these theories to ethical and religious concepts of sin, punishment, and divine foreknowledge.

Topic Overview

The topic of free will and moral responsibility is central to philosophy of religion and ethics, as it questions the foundations of human accountability. In AQA A-Level Religious Studies, you will explore three main positions: libertarianism (the belief that free will is incompatible with determinism and that humans have genuine freedom), hard determinism (the belief that determinism is true and free will is an illusion), and compatibilism (the belief that free will and determinism can coexist). This debate has profound implications for religious concepts such as sin, divine grace, and the afterlife, as well as for legal and moral systems.

You will examine key philosophical arguments, including the causal principle, the problem of divine foreknowledge, and the nature of moral responsibility. Thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, John Calvin, and Martin Luther have argued for theological determinism, while philosophers like Immanuel Kant and Jean-Paul Sartre have defended libertarian free will. David Hume and A.J. Ayer are prominent compatibilists. Understanding these perspectives is essential for evaluating the coherence of religious beliefs about judgment and punishment.

This topic also connects to ethical theories, such as Kantian ethics (which presupposes free will) and utilitarianism (which focuses on consequences). By studying free will and moral responsibility, you will develop critical thinking skills, learning to analyse arguments, identify weaknesses, and construct balanced evaluations. This is a high-scoring area if you can demonstrate precise use of terminology and engage with scholarly debates.

Key Concepts

→Free will: The ability to make choices that are not determined by prior causes, often seen as necessary for moral responsibility.
→Determinism: The philosophical view that every event, including human actions, is causally determined by prior events and natural laws.
→Hard determinism: The position that determinism is true and therefore free will and moral responsibility are impossible.
→Soft determinism (compatibilism): The view that determinism is true but free will is compatible with it, as free actions are those caused by our own desires and choices.
→Libertarianism: The view that free will is incompatible with determinism and that humans have genuine, undetermined free will.

Marking Points

Conditions of moral responsibility: free will and understanding the difference between right and wrong
The extent of moral responsibility: libertarianism, hard determinism, and compatibilism
The relevance of moral responsibility to reward and punishment

Examiner Tips

💡Ensure you can clearly define and distinguish between libertarianism, hard determinism, and compatibilism
💡Be prepared to link the concept of moral responsibility to the practical implications of reward and punishment
💡Use specialist terminology accurately when discussing the conditions of moral responsibility
💡Always define key terms (free will, determinism, moral responsibility) in your introduction to show the examiner you understand the concepts.
💡Use specific philosophers and their arguments to support your points, e.g., Holbach for hard determinism, Hume for compatibilism, Kant for libertarianism.
💡In evaluation paragraphs, avoid simply stating 'this is a weakness' – explain why it is a weakness and consider possible responses from the opposing view.

Common Mistakes

Misconception: Determinism means that we are forced to act against our will. Correction: Determinism does not mean coercion; it means that our actions are caused by our desires, beliefs, and character, which are themselves caused by prior events.
Misconception: Libertarianism means that our choices are random and uncaused. Correction: Libertarians argue that free choices are caused by the agent's reasons and deliberation, but not causally determined by prior events. They distinguish between rational causation and deterministic causation.
Misconception: Compatibilism denies free will. Correction: Compatibilism redefines free will as the ability to act according to one's own desires without external constraint, so it affirms free will in a practical sense.

Revision Plan

1Week 1: Focus on understanding the three positions – libertarianism, hard determinism, and compatibilism. Create a table comparing their views on free will, determinism, and moral responsibility.
2Week 2: Study key philosophers for each position. Read primary sources or summaries of Holbach, Hume, Kant, and Sartre. Make notes on their key arguments and examples.
3Week 3: Practice applying the concepts to exam questions. Write short paragraphs defining terms and evaluating arguments. Use past paper questions to identify common themes.
4Week 4: Review your notes and create mind maps. Test yourself with active recall prompts and practice full essays under timed conditions.

Exam Question Types

📋1. 'Explain the difference between hard determinism and soft determinism.' (5 marks) – This requires a clear definition and comparison, with examples.
📋2. 'Evaluate the claim that free will is compatible with determinism.' (15 marks) – This requires a balanced essay, presenting arguments for and against compatibilism, with a justified conclusion.
📋3. 'Analyse the implications of determinism for moral responsibility.' (10 marks) – This requires a detailed analysis of how determinism challenges the concept of moral responsibility, with reference to key thinkers.
📋4. 'To what extent is libertarianism a convincing account of free will?' (15 marks) – This requires an evaluation of libertarian arguments, considering strengths and weaknesses.

Command Word Expectations (AQA)

Explain

Give a detailed account of a concept, theory, or argument. You must define key terms, describe the main points, and provide examples. No evaluation is required, but clarity and accuracy are essential.

Evaluate

Assess the strengths and weaknesses of an argument or theory. You must present a balanced discussion, consider different perspectives, and reach a justified conclusion. Use evidence and examples to support your evaluation.

Analyse

Break down a concept or argument into its component parts, examining the relationships between them. You should identify underlying assumptions, implications, and possible objections. This requires critical thinking and detailed explanation.

How Students Lose Marks (Examiner Pitfalls)

Pitfall: Students often confuse determinism with fatalism, or assume that all determinists deny moral responsibility entirely, losing marks by not distinguishing between hard and soft determinism.

❌ Weak Answer (Loses Marks):Determinism means everything is fated, so we can't be responsible for our actions.

Example improved answer:Determinism is the philosophical thesis that every event, including human actions, is causally determined by prior events and the laws of nature. However, determinism does not necessarily imply fatalism, which is the belief that events are fixed regardless of our choices. Hard determinists, such as Holbach, argue that because determinism is true, moral responsibility is impossible. In contrast, soft determinists (compatibilists) like Hume and Mill argue that determinism is compatible with moral responsibility, as long as actions are caused by our own desires and character, not external coercion.

Examiner Tip: Always define determinism and fatalism separately, and explicitly state the position of the philosopher you are discussing. Use the terms 'hard' and 'soft' determinism to show precise understanding.

Pitfall: In essays on free will and moral responsibility, students often describe libertarian theories but fail to address the challenge of the 'randomness' objection, which is a key criticism of libertarian free will.

❌ Weak Answer (Loses Marks):Libertarianism says we have free will because we can choose freely, and this is obvious from our experience.

Example improved answer:Libertarianism, as defended by Kant and Reid, holds that free will is incompatible with determinism and that humans possess a special causal power to initiate actions independently of prior causes. However, critics argue that if free choices are not determined, they are random or arbitrary, undermining moral responsibility. Libertarians respond by distinguishing between rational deliberation and randomness: a free choice is one made for reasons that the agent endorses, even if those reasons do not causally necessitate the action. For example, Kant grounds free will in the noumenal realm, where rational beings act according to the moral law, thus avoiding the randomness objection.

Examiner Tip: When evaluating libertarianism, always address the randomness objection and explain how a specific libertarian philosopher (e.g., Kant, Reid, or Sartre) responds to it. This shows critical evaluation and depth.

Step-by-Step Worked Solutions

Question: Explain the difference between hard determinism and soft determinism (compatibilism) and give an example of each.

1.Step 1: Define determinism: the view that all events are caused by prior events.
2.Step 2: Define hard determinism: the view that determinism is true and therefore free will and moral responsibility are impossible. Example: Holbach's analogy of a man who thinks he is free but is like a stone falling, unaware of the forces acting on it.
3.Step 3: Define soft determinism (compatibilism): the view that determinism is true but free will and moral responsibility are still possible because free actions are those caused by our own desires and choices. Example: Hume's account of liberty as the power to act according to the determinations of the will, not being coerced.

Final Answer: Hard determinism denies free will because determinism is true, while soft determinism (compatibilism) accepts determinism but redefines free will as acting according to one's own desires, thus preserving moral responsibility.

Question: Evaluate the claim that moral responsibility requires free will. (6 marks)

1.Step 1: Define moral responsibility: being a fitting subject of praise or blame, reward or punishment.
2.Step 2: Argue that moral responsibility requires free will: if actions are not freely chosen, it seems unfair to hold someone accountable (e.g., a person acting under hypnosis is not responsible).
3.Step 3: Present counter-argument: compatibilists argue that moral responsibility only requires that actions are caused by our character and desires, not that they are uncaused. For example, a person with a good character is praised for their actions even if determined.
4.Step 4: Conclude with a balanced judgment: while free will in a libertarian sense may not be necessary, some form of control or autonomy is required for moral responsibility.

Final Answer: Moral responsibility is typically seen as requiring free will, but compatibilists argue that a weaker sense of free will (acting according to our own desires) is sufficient. The debate hinges on the definition of free will.

Active Recall Memory Test

What is the difference between hard determinism and soft determinism?

Key Fact: Hard determinism holds that determinism is true and therefore free will and moral responsibility are impossible. Soft determinism (compatibilism) holds that determinism is true but free will is compatible with it, as free actions are those caused by our own desires.

Who is a key philosopher for libertarianism and what is their main argument?

Key Fact: Immanuel Kant argued that free will is a necessary postulate of morality; we must presuppose freedom to make sense of moral obligation. He distinguished between the phenomenal and noumenal realms, placing free will in the noumenal realm.

What is the 'randomness objection' to libertarianism?

Key Fact: The objection that if free choices are not determined, they are random or arbitrary, and therefore not truly free or morally responsible. Libertarians respond by arguing that free choices are rational and intentional, not random.

How does Hume define liberty?

Key Fact: Hume defines liberty as the power to act according to the determinations of the will, not being coerced or constrained. This is compatible with determinism because our will is determined by our desires and character.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between free will and moral responsibility?

Free will is the ability to make choices that are not determined by prior causes, while moral responsibility is the status of being deserving of praise or blame for an action. Many philosophers argue that moral responsibility requires free will, but compatibilists believe that even if our choices are determined, we can still be morally responsible if we act according to our own desires.

Does determinism mean we have no control over our actions?

Determinism does not necessarily mean we have no control. It means that our actions are caused by prior events, including our desires and beliefs. Compatibilists argue that we still have control in the sense that we can act according to our own will, even if that will is determined. Hard determinists, however, argue that true control is impossible because our choices are ultimately caused by factors outside our control.

What is the problem of divine foreknowledge and free will?

The problem is that if God knows everything in advance, including our future choices, then it seems our choices are already fixed, making free will impossible. Some philosophers, like Boethius, argue that God's knowledge is outside time, so he sees our choices as present, not predetermined. Others, like Calvin, accept that God's foreknowledge implies predestination, which challenges free will.

How does Kant argue for free will?

Kant argues that free will is a necessary postulate of practical reason. He says that we must presuppose freedom to make sense of moral obligation – if we are not free, we cannot be morally required to act. He places free will in the noumenal realm, which is beyond empirical investigation, so it cannot be disproven by science.

What is the difference between libertarianism and compatibilism?

Libertarianism holds that free will is incompatible with determinism, so if we have free will, determinism must be false. Compatibilism holds that free will and determinism are compatible – we can be free even if our actions are determined, as long as they are caused by our own desires and choices.

Can a religious believer accept determinism?

Yes, many religious believers accept determinism, especially theological determinism, which holds that God has predetermined all events. For example, Calvinists believe in predestination. However, this raises challenges for moral responsibility and the problem of evil. Some religious thinkers, like Aquinas, attempt to reconcile divine foreknowledge with human free will.

Free will and moral responsibility explained

What to demonstrate

Free will and moral responsibility exam tips

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