Section B: Ethics and religion — AQA A-Level Religious Studies
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Section B: Ethics and religion explained
Section B: Ethics and religion covers normative ethical theories, their application to human and non-human life and death, meta-ethics, free will, moral responsibility, conscience, and a comparative study of Bentham and Kant.
What to demonstrate
- Knowledge and understanding of specified ethical theories (Natural Moral Law, Situation Ethics, Virtue Ethics)
- Application of theories to specific issues of human and non-human life and death
- Understanding of meta-ethical concepts (Divine Command Theory, Naturalism, Intuitionism)
Show all 6 objectives
- Analysis of free will, determinism, and moral responsibility
- Understanding of the nature and role of conscience
- Comparison of Bentham and Kant and their consistency with religious moral decision-making
Section B: Ethics and religion exam tips
Quick Revision Summary (Key Takeaway)
Section B: Ethics and religion in AQA A-Level Religious Studies explores the relationship between ethical theories and religious beliefs, including natural law, situation ethics, and virtue ethics, and their application to moral issues. It examines how religious traditions inform ethical decision-making and the challenges posed by secular ethics.
Topic Overview
Section B of the AQA A-Level Religious Studies course, 'Ethics and religion', delves into the intricate relationship between moral philosophy and religious belief. It examines how religious traditions, particularly Christianity, have shaped ethical thinking, and how secular ethical theories have challenged or complemented religious perspectives. This topic is central to understanding the role of religion in contemporary moral debates, from medical ethics to social justice.
The study begins with foundational ethical theories such as natural law, situation ethics, and virtue ethics, each offering a distinct lens on moral decision-making. Natural law, rooted in Aquinas, provides an absolutist framework based on human nature and divine purpose. Situation ethics, proposed by Fletcher, offers a relativistic, love-centred approach. Virtue ethics, from Aristotle, focuses on character and flourishing. Students explore how these theories are applied to issues like euthanasia, contraception, and abortion, and how they compare with religious teachings.
This topic is vital for students as it develops critical thinking, ethical reasoning, and the ability to evaluate complex moral arguments. It also prepares students for exam questions that require analysis, evaluation, and application of theories to real-world scenarios. Understanding the interplay between ethics and religion is essential for anyone pursuing careers in law, medicine, education, or theology, and it enriches one's ability to engage in informed moral discourse.
Key Concepts
- →Natural Law: Aquinas's theory that moral principles are derived from human nature and the eternal law, with primary and secondary precepts.
- →Situation Ethics: Fletcher's theory that love (agape) is the only absolute, and decisions should be made situationally using the four working principles.
- →Virtue Ethics: Aristotle's approach focusing on character, virtues, and eudaimonia, rather than rules or consequences.
- →Absolutism vs. Relativism: The debate between universal moral rules and context-dependent ethics.
- →Application to issues: How these theories address euthanasia, contraception, and other moral dilemmas.
Marking Points
- Knowledge and understanding of specified ethical theories (Natural Moral Law, Situation Ethics, Virtue Ethics)
- Application of theories to specific issues of human and non-human life and death
- Understanding of meta-ethical concepts (Divine Command Theory, Naturalism, Intuitionism)
- Analysis of free will, determinism, and moral responsibility
- Understanding of the nature and role of conscience
- Comparison of Bentham and Kant and their consistency with religious moral decision-making
Examiner Tips
- 💡Ensure specialist language and terminology are used appropriately
- 💡Questions may span more than one topic, so look for connections
- 💡Part (a) questions test AO1 (knowledge and understanding), part (b) questions test AO2 (analysis and evaluation)
- 💡Be prepared to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the prescribed scholars and theories
- 💡Always define key terms precisely and use correct terminology (e.g., 'primary precepts', 'agape', 'eudaimonia') to show knowledge.
- 💡For evaluation, ensure you present both strengths and weaknesses, and support each point with examples or scholarly references.
- 💡Practice applying theories to specific issues (euthanasia, contraception, etc.) in timed conditions to improve your ability to structure coherent arguments.
Common Mistakes
- Misconception: Natural law is the same as the Ten Commandments. Correction: Natural law is a rational theory based on human nature, not just divine commands; it includes primary precepts like preserving life and reproducing.
- Misconception: Situation ethics is the same as utilitarianism. Correction: While both are consequentialist, situation ethics is specifically Christian and centres on agape love, not just the greatest happiness.
- Misconception: Virtue ethics is just about being a good person. Correction: It is a systematic theory that emphasises habituation, phronesis, and the goal of eudaimonia, and it can be applied to specific dilemmas.
Revision Plan
- 1Week 1: Focus on natural law – read textbook, create flashcards for key terms, and practice explaining the theory in your own words.
- 2Week 2: Study situation ethics and virtue ethics – compare and contrast them with natural law, and apply each to a case study like euthanasia.
- 3Week 3: Revise application to issues – write essay plans for common questions, and practice 12-mark evaluations.
- 4Week 4: Review past papers, identify weak areas, and do timed practice questions. Use active recall to test yourself on key concepts.
Exam Question Types
- 📋Explain questions (2-6 marks): Define and describe a theory or concept, e.g., 'Explain the primary precepts of natural law.'
- 📋Analyse questions (6-10 marks): Apply a theory to a specific issue, e.g., 'Analyse how situation ethics might respond to euthanasia.'
- 📋Evaluate questions (12 marks): Critically assess a statement, e.g., 'Evaluate the view that natural law is the best approach to moral decision-making.'
- 📋Compare and contrast questions: Discuss similarities and differences between two theories, e.g., 'Compare natural law and situation ethics.'
Command Word Expectations (AQA)
Explain
Provide a clear, detailed account of a concept or theory, showing understanding of key terms and principles. No evaluation needed.
Analyse
Break down a theory or issue into its components, showing how they relate and applying to a specific context. Requires critical thinking.
Evaluate
Make a judgement on the value or effectiveness of a theory, considering strengths and weaknesses, and reaching a reasoned conclusion.
How Students Lose Marks (Examiner Pitfalls)
Pitfall: Students often confuse the absolutist nature of natural law with the relativist approach of situation ethics, leading to muddled evaluations.
❌ Weak Answer (Loses Marks):Natural law is absolutist and situation ethics is relativist, so they are completely different and cannot be compared.
Example improved answer:Natural law, rooted in Aquinas's synthesis of Aristotelian teleology and Christian doctrine, is an absolutist, deontological theory that posits universal moral principles derived from human nature and the eternal law. In contrast, situation ethics, proposed by Joseph Fletcher, is a relativistic, consequentialist theory that prioritises agape (love) as the sole absolute, allowing for flexible decision-making based on circumstances. Despite their differences, both theories aim to provide a Christian ethical framework, but they diverge on the role of rules: natural law emphasises intrinsic goods and primary precepts, while situation ethics uses the four working principles (pragmatism, relativism, positivism, and personalism) to apply love in each situation. A nuanced evaluation would consider how both address moral dilemmas, such as euthanasia, where natural law would prohibit it as a violation of the primary precept of preserving life, whereas situation ethics might permit it if it is the most loving outcome.
Examiner Tip: Always compare and contrast theories explicitly, using specific examples and key terminology to demonstrate depth of understanding.
Pitfall: In 12-mark 'Evaluate' questions, students often describe the theory without applying it to a specific ethical issue, losing marks for evaluation.
❌ Weak Answer (Loses Marks):Virtue ethics is a good theory because it focuses on character. It would say that stealing is wrong because it is not virtuous.
Example improved answer:Virtue ethics, originating from Aristotle, emphasises moral character and the development of virtues (e.g., courage, temperance, justice) through habituation and phronesis (practical wisdom). When applied to the issue of lying, a virtue ethicist would consider whether lying aligns with the virtue of honesty and contributes to eudaimonia (flourishing). However, a strength is that it provides a flexible, agent-centred approach that considers context and relationships, unlike rigid deontological rules. A weakness is that it may lack clear guidance in specific dilemmas, as virtues can conflict (e.g., honesty vs. compassion). In evaluating, one might argue that virtue ethics is more holistic than natural law, but it requires a well-formed character, which is not always present. Thus, while it offers a compelling alternative, its practical application is challenging without clear rules.
Examiner Tip: For evaluation, always include strengths and weaknesses, and apply the theory to a concrete example to show critical analysis.
Step-by-Step Worked Solutions
Question: Explain how Aquinas's natural law theory would approach the issue of euthanasia. (6 marks)
- 1.Step 1: Identify the key principles of natural law: primary precepts (preserve life, reproduce, educate, live in society, worship God) and secondary precepts derived from them.
- 2.Step 2: Apply the primary precept of preserving life to euthanasia: euthanasia involves intentionally ending a life, which directly contradicts this precept.
- 3.Step 3: Consider the concept of double effect: if a treatment to relieve pain hastens death unintentionally, it may be permissible, but direct euthanasia is not.
- 4.Step 4: Conclude that natural law would reject euthanasia as morally wrong, as it violates the intrinsic good of life and the divine law.
Final Answer: Natural law would condemn euthanasia as it violates the primary precept of preserving life, and only indirect euthanasia via double effect might be acceptable.
Question: Analyse how situation ethics might respond to a couple using contraception. (6 marks)
- 1.Step 1: Recall Fletcher's situation ethics: the only absolute is agape (love), and decisions are made situationally using the four working principles.
- 2.Step 2: Apply the principle of personalism: the couple's needs and the loving outcome are paramount, not abstract rules.
- 3.Step 3: Consider the principle of pragmatism: contraception can be a practical means to achieve a loving family life, e.g., spacing children.
- 4.Step 4: Evaluate: situation ethics would likely permit contraception if it is the most loving thing for the couple, contrasting with natural law's prohibition.
- 5.Step 5: Conclude that situation ethics provides a flexible, love-based approach that may justify contraception.
Final Answer: Situation ethics would likely permit contraception if it is the most loving choice for the couple, prioritising agape over absolute rules.
Active Recall Memory Test
What are the five primary precepts of natural law?
Key Fact: Preserve life, reproduce, educate children, live in society, and worship God.
What are the four working principles of situation ethics?
Key Fact: Pragmatism, relativism, positivism, and personalism.
Define eudaimonia in virtue ethics.
Key Fact: Eudaimonia is the ultimate goal of human life, meaning flourishing or happiness achieved through virtuous living.
How does natural law view contraception?
Key Fact: Natural law prohibits contraception as it violates the primary precept of reproduction and the purpose of sexual intercourse.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the difference between natural law and situation ethics?
Natural law is an absolutist, deontological theory that believes moral rules are derived from human nature and God's eternal law, providing universal precepts like 'preserve life'. Situation ethics, on the other hand, is a relativistic, consequentialist theory that argues the only absolute is love (agape), and decisions should be made based on the most loving outcome in each situation. While natural law offers clear, unchanging rules, situation ethics allows for flexibility and personal responsibility.
How do I apply virtue ethics to a moral issue like euthanasia?
To apply virtue ethics, consider what a virtuous person would do in the situation. For euthanasia, you might think about virtues like compassion, honesty, and respect for life. A virtuous person might show compassion by relieving suffering, but also respect the sanctity of life. The decision would depend on which virtues are most relevant and how they contribute to human flourishing. Virtue ethics doesn't provide a clear-cut answer but encourages a holistic consideration of character and consequences.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of natural law?
Strengths of natural law include its clear, objective moral rules that apply universally, its grounding in reason and human nature, and its consistency with Christian teachings. Weaknesses include its rigidity, which may not account for complex situations, its reliance on the assumption of a divine purpose, and potential conflicts between precepts (e.g., preserving life vs. reproducing). Critics argue it is outdated and fails to consider individual circumstances.
Why is situation ethics considered a Christian theory?
Situation ethics is considered Christian because it is based on the teaching of Jesus to love your neighbour as yourself, and it prioritises agape (selfless, unconditional love) as the sole absolute. Joseph Fletcher, who proposed it, was a Christian theologian and aimed to provide a practical ethical approach for Christians. The theory uses Christian principles like personalism and positivism, and it often references Jesus's actions as examples of situational love.
How can I revise ethics for AQA A-Level Religious Studies effectively?
To revise effectively, start by creating concise notes on each theory, including key terms, philosophers, and strengths/weaknesses. Use active recall by testing yourself with flashcards or past paper questions. Practice applying theories to specific issues like euthanasia, abortion, and contraception. Finally, write full essay plans and timed essays to improve your evaluation skills. Focus on understanding the nuances of each theory and how they compare.
What is the significance of the 'four working principles' in situation ethics?
The four working principles are pragmatism, relativism, positivism, and personalism. Pragmatism means the action must work in practice to produce the most loving outcome. Relativism means that all rules are relative to love, which is the only absolute. Positivism means that faith in love is a positive choice, not based on reason. Personalism means that people are at the centre of ethical decisions, not rules. These principles guide how to apply agape in each situation.