Religion and Ethics – Ethical thought (Divine Command, Virtue Theory, Ethical Egoism, meta-ethics) — Eduqas A-Level Religious Studies

This topic explores four major approaches to ethical decision-making and moral philosophy. Divine Command Theory asserts that morality is grounded in God's commands, making actions right or wrong based on divine will. Virtue Theory, rooted in Aristotle, focuses on character and flourishing (eudaimonia) rather than rules or consequences. Ethical Egoism claims that individuals ought to act in their own self-interest, while meta-ethics examines the nature of moral language, asking whether ethical statements can be true or false. Together, these theories provide a comprehensive framework for understanding how humans reason about right and wrong.

Studying these ethical theories is crucial because they underpin many real-world debates, from religious morality to secular ethics. For the WJEC A-Level, you must be able to compare and contrast these approaches, evaluate their strengths and weaknesses, and apply them to contemporary issues like abortion, euthanasia, or business ethics. Understanding meta-ethics is particularly important as it challenges the very foundations of moral claims, linking to philosophical debates about objectivity and relativism.

This topic fits within the broader 'Religion and Ethics' component, which also covers natural law, situation ethics, and utilitarianism. Mastery of these four theories will enable you to critically engage with ethical dilemmas and demonstrate higher-order thinking in exams, especially in essay questions that require evaluation and synthesis.

• →Divine Command Theory: The view that morality is dependent on God's commands; often linked to the Euthyphro dilemma (is something good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good?).
• →Virtue Theory: Focuses on developing moral character (virtues) such as courage, honesty, and compassion; aims for eudaimonia (human flourishing) through the Golden Mean.
• →Ethical Egoism: The normative theory that individuals should act in their own self-interest; distinguished from psychological egoism (descriptive) and rational egoism (Ayn Rand's objectivism).
• →Meta-ethics: The study of the nature of moral language, including cognitivism (moral statements can be true/false) vs. non-cognitivism (emotivism, prescriptivism), and moral realism vs. anti-realism.

• Explanation of Divine Command Theory as God-centered morality and Robert Adams' modified version.
• Understanding of the Euthyphro dilemma and the arbitrariness problem.
• Application of Aristotle's Virtue Theory (deficiency, excess, mean) and Jesus' Beatitudes.
• Analysis of Ethical Egoism (agent-focused, self-interest) and Max Stirner's union of egoists.
• Distinction between cognitivist and non-cognitivist meta-ethical theories.
• Explanation of Naturalism (F.H. Bradley) and its challenges (Hume's Law, Moore's Naturalistic Fallacy).
• Explanation of Intuitionism (H.A. Prichard) and its challenges.
• Explanation of Emotivism (A.J. Ayer) and its challenges.

• 💡Ensure you can clearly define the difference between cognitivist and non-cognitivist meta-ethical theories.
• 💡When evaluating Divine Command Theory, always reference the Euthyphro dilemma.
• 💡Use specific terminology like 'mean', 'excess', and 'deficiency' when discussing Aristotle.
• 💡Be prepared to compare the three meta-ethical theories (Naturalism, Intuitionism, Emotivism) in terms of their objectivity.
• 💡Always link the theory back to the question of whether morality is objective or subjective.
• 💡For Divine Command Theory, always reference the Euthyphro dilemma and explain its implications for moral autonomy. Use scholars like William of Ockham (voluntarism) vs. Thomas Aquinas (natural law) to show depth.
• 💡When evaluating Virtue Theory, discuss its application to modern issues (e.g., environmental ethics) and criticisms like 'conflict of virtues' or 'situation-specificity'. Mention Philippa Foot or Alasdair MacIntyre for contemporary relevance.
• 💡For meta-ethics, clearly distinguish between cognitivist and non-cognitivist theories. Use examples: 'Murder is wrong' – is it a factual claim (cognitivism) or an expression of emotion (emotivism)? Link to A.J. Ayer and R.M. Hare.

• Confusing the Euthyphro dilemma with other meta-ethical challenges.
• Failing to distinguish between psychological egoism and ethical egoism.
• Misunderstanding the 'is-ought' problem in Naturalism.
• Treating Emotivism as simple subjectivism rather than a non-cognitivist expression of emotion.
• Overlooking the distinction between internal and external acts in Virtue Theory or Natural Law contexts.
• Misconception: Divine Command Theory means God can command anything, even cruelty. Correction: Many theologians argue God's commands are inherently good because God's nature is good, so He would not command evil. The Euthyphro dilemma highlights this tension.
• Misconception: Virtue Theory is just about being a 'good person' without clear rules. Correction: It provides a framework for character development and practical wisdom (phronesis) to determine the right action in context, not just vague advice.
• Misconception: Ethical Egoism is the same as selfishness. Correction: It is a normative theory that prioritizes long-term self-interest, which can include altruistic acts if they benefit the agent (e.g., helping others to feel good or build reputation).