Application of ethical theories to issues of importance: War and peace, and Sexual ethics — Edexcel A-Level Religious Studies
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Application of ethical theories to issues of importance: War and peace, and Sexual ethics explained
This topic covers the application of ethical theories to the issues of war and peace, and sexual ethics.
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It involves examining religious and secular perspectives on these issues, including the Just War Theory, pacifism, and diverse approaches to sexual relationships, marriage, and contraception.
What to demonstrate
- Understanding of the contribution of at least one religion to issues of war and peace, including sacred texts.
- Knowledge of Just War Theory principles: jus ad bellum, jus in bello, and jus post bellum.
- Understanding of different forms of pacifism: absolute, relative/selective, and nuclear.
Show all 8 objectives
- Ability to evaluate contemporary conflicts against Just War Theory.
- Knowledge of religious and secular approaches to sexual ethics, including pre-marital sex, adultery, same-sex relationships, and contraception.
- Ability to evaluate the relevance of religious teachings on sexual ethics in modern society.
- Reference to the ideas of Augustine and Aquinas regarding war and peace.
- Reference to the ideas of P Vardy and J Dominian regarding sexual ethics.
Application of ethical theories to issues of importance: War and peace, and Sexual ethics exam tips
Topic Overview
This topic explores how ethical theories—specifically Natural Law, Situation Ethics, and Utilitarianism—are applied to two controversial areas: war and peace, and sexual ethics. In the context of war and peace, you will examine the just war theory, pacifism, and the ethics of nuclear weapons, considering how each theory justifies or condemns military action. For sexual ethics, you will analyse premarital sex, contraception, and homosexuality through the lenses of these theories, engaging with both religious and secular perspectives.
Understanding these applications is crucial because they demonstrate how abstract ethical principles translate into real-world moral decisions. For Edexcel A-Level Religious Studies, this topic tests your ability to evaluate the coherence and practicality of ethical theories when faced with complex, emotionally charged issues. You will need to critically assess strengths and weaknesses, such as whether Natural Law's absolutism can accommodate modern sexual ethics or whether Situation Ethics' relativism provides a robust framework for just war.
This topic sits within the 'Ethics' component of the course, building on foundational knowledge of ethical theories. It requires you to synthesise arguments from philosophy, theology, and contemporary debates, preparing you for essay questions that demand balanced evaluation and application of scholarly views (e.g., Aquinas, Fletcher, Bentham). Mastery of this content will enable you to construct nuanced arguments that acknowledge both theoretical consistency and practical implications.
Key Concepts
- →Just War Theory: Criteria for a just war (jus ad bellum) and conduct within war (jus in bello), including legitimate authority, just cause, proportionality, and discrimination.
- →Pacifism: Absolute rejection of war, often rooted in religious (e.g., Quaker) or philosophical (e.g., Tolstoy) beliefs; key distinction between absolute and contingent pacifism.
- →Natural Law: Aquinas's primary precepts (e.g., preservation of life, reproduction) applied to sexual ethics; acts must be procreative and unitive within marriage.
- →Situation Ethics: Fletcher's agape-based approach; the only absolute is love, so actions (e.g., premarital sex) are right if they produce the most loving outcome.
- →Utilitarianism: Bentham's hedonic calculus and Mill's higher pleasures; war is justified if it maximises overall happiness, but nuclear weapons raise issues of total vs. average utility.
Marking Points
- Understanding of the contribution of at least one religion to issues of war and peace, including sacred texts.
- Knowledge of Just War Theory principles: jus ad bellum, jus in bello, and jus post bellum.
- Understanding of different forms of pacifism: absolute, relative/selective, and nuclear.
- Ability to evaluate contemporary conflicts against Just War Theory.
- Knowledge of religious and secular approaches to sexual ethics, including pre-marital sex, adultery, same-sex relationships, and contraception.
- Ability to evaluate the relevance of religious teachings on sexual ethics in modern society.
- Reference to the ideas of Augustine and Aquinas regarding war and peace.
- Reference to the ideas of P Vardy and J Dominian regarding sexual ethics.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Ensure you can explicitly link the ethical theories studied in Topic 2 (Utilitarianism, Situation Ethics, Natural Moral Law) to the issues in Topic 3.
- 💡Use the specific terminology for Just War Theory (jus ad bellum, jus in bello, jus post bellum).
- 💡When discussing sexual ethics, ensure you address both religious and secular perspectives.
- 💡Use the works of the named scholars (Augustine, Aquinas, Vardy, Dominian) to support your analysis.
- 💡Practice evaluating the 'continuing relevance' of religious teachings in a modern, secular context.
- 💡Always define the ethical theory before applying it to the issue. For example, start with 'Natural Law, based on Aristotle and Aquinas, holds that morality is derived from the purpose (telos) of human nature...' This shows the examiner you understand the theory's foundations.
- 💡Use specific scholars and their views to strengthen your argument. For just war, reference Aquinas or Augustine; for Situation Ethics, quote Fletcher's 'The new morality'; for Utilitarianism, contrast Bentham and Mill on the quality of pleasure.
- 💡Evaluate rather than describe. For each application, state a strength (e.g., 'Natural Law provides clear, objective guidance') and a weakness (e.g., 'but it fails to account for loving relationships without procreative potential'). This demonstrates critical thinking.
Common Mistakes
- Failing to apply specific ethical theories (e.g., Utilitarianism, Natural Moral Law) to the issues of war and sexual ethics.
- Confusing the different types of pacifism.
- Generalizing religious views without acknowledging the diversity of approaches within a single religion.
- Neglecting to evaluate the success or practicality of the theories discussed.
- Failing to use the required scholars to support arguments.
- Misconception: Natural Law is identical to Catholic teaching. Correction: While Aquinas's Natural Law heavily influences Catholic moral theology, it is a philosophical theory that can be argued independently of religious belief, based on reason and purpose.
- Misconception: Situation Ethics always permits any action as long as it is loving. Correction: Fletcher insisted on agape (selfless, unconditional love) and that the most loving action may sometimes require sacrifice; it is not a license for selfish behaviour.
- Misconception: Utilitarianism always supports war if it benefits the majority. Correction: Utilitarianism must consider long-term consequences, including suffering, economic costs, and psychological trauma; a proper calculation often reveals war's disutility.
Frequently Asked Questions
How do I apply Natural Law to the issue of premarital sex?
Natural Law, as developed by Aquinas, holds that sexual acts must fulfil the primary precepts of preserving life and reproducing. Premarital sex is considered wrong because it separates the unitive and procreative purposes of sex, which should only occur within marriage. You can argue that it violates the 'reproduction' precept if contraception is used, or the 'education' precept if it leads to irresponsible behaviour. However, critics point out that Natural Law assumes a specific view of human purpose that may not be universally accepted.
What is the difference between absolute and contingent pacifism?
Absolute pacifism rejects all war and violence without exception, often based on religious beliefs (e.g., Jesus' teaching to 'turn the other cheek') or a commitment to non-violence as an intrinsic good. Contingent pacifism, on the other hand, opposes war in principle but accepts that there may be rare circumstances where violence is the lesser evil, such as in self-defence or to prevent genocide. For your exam, it's important to distinguish these because they lead to different ethical evaluations of specific conflicts.
Can Situation Ethics justify the use of nuclear weapons?
Situation Ethics, based on agape love, would evaluate nuclear weapons by asking whether their use produces the most loving outcome. In theory, if using a nuclear weapon could end a war quickly and save more lives overall, it might be justified. However, Fletcher would likely argue that the indiscriminate destruction and long-term suffering caused by nuclear weapons are incompatible with love. The key is to apply the four working principles (pragmatism, relativism, positivism, personalism) to the specific situation, showing that the most loving action is rarely to use such weapons.
How does Utilitarianism evaluate homosexuality?
Classical Utilitarianism (Bentham) would evaluate homosexuality based on its consequences for happiness. If homosexual acts between consenting adults increase pleasure and do not cause harm, they would be morally permissible. Mill's qualitative utilitarianism might argue that higher pleasures (e.g., emotional intimacy) are more valuable than mere physical pleasure, so loving same-sex relationships could be considered good. However, some critics argue that Utilitarianism could be used to justify discrimination if society's majority disapproves, but this would conflict with the principle of impartiality.
What are the main criticisms of Just War Theory?
Key criticisms include: (1) It can be used to justify virtually any war by manipulating criteria (e.g., 'just cause' is subjective). (2) It assumes war can be conducted morally, but pacifists argue all war is inherently evil. (3) The principle of proportionality is difficult to apply in practice, especially with modern weapons. (4) It often fails to address the root causes of conflict. For your exam, you should also note that some scholars (e.g., Michael Walzer) defend Just War Theory as a necessary framework for limiting war's horrors.
How should I structure an essay on applying ethical theories to sexual ethics?
Start with a brief introduction defining the issue (e.g., premarital sex) and the three theories. Then dedicate a paragraph to each theory: explain its key principles, apply them to the issue, and evaluate with strengths and weaknesses. Use specific scholars (e.g., Aquinas for Natural Law, Fletcher for Situation Ethics, Mill for Utilitarianism). Conclude by comparing the theories, perhaps arguing that one provides the most coherent or practical guidance. Always link back to the question and show critical analysis, not just description.