Families and Households — AQA A-Level Sociology

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Families and Households explained

This subtopic explores sociological perspectives on childhood as a socially constructed phenomenon, examining how its meaning and experience vary across cultures and time.

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It critically evaluates arguments about the disappearance of childhood in postmodern society due to media and technology, and analyses how globalisation shapes diverse childhoods through economic, cultural, and political forces.

Your focus

Explain the social construction of childhood
Evaluate the view that childhood is disappearing
Analyse the impact of globalisation on childhood

Families and Households exam tips

Quick Revision Summary (Key Takeaway)

Families and Households in AQA A-Level Sociology explores the diversity of family structures, the roles and relationships within them, and theoretical perspectives on their functions. It examines how social changes, such as increased divorce rates and changing gender roles, have transformed family life in the UK.

Topic Overview

Families and Households is a core topic in AQA A-Level Sociology, examining the diversity of family forms in contemporary UK society. It covers key concepts such as the nuclear family, extended family, lone-parent families, and same-sex families, and explores how these structures have changed over time. The topic also investigates the roles and relationships within families, including conjugal roles, domestic division of labour, and the impact of paid work on family life.

The topic is central to understanding social structures and inequalities, as it links to gender, class, and ethnicity. Sociological theories—Functionalism, Marxism, Feminism, and Postmodernism—offer contrasting views on the family's role in society. For example, functionalists see the family as vital for social stability, while feminists highlight patriarchal oppression within the family. This topic also connects to social policy, as government decisions shape family life, and to demographic changes like an ageing population.

Mastery of this topic requires critical analysis of sociological evidence and the ability to evaluate theories. Students must be able to apply concepts to real-world examples and assess the extent of family diversity. This topic is examined through short-answer questions, essays, and data response questions, making it essential to practice applying knowledge to different question types.

Key Concepts

→Nuclear family: a two-generation family consisting of a married couple and their dependent children, often seen as the 'traditional' family form.
→Symmetrical family: a family where roles and responsibilities are shared equally between partners, as proposed by Young and Willmott.
→Domestic division of labour: the allocation of household tasks and childcare between partners, often analysed through the concepts of 'triple shift' and 'emotional work'.
→Family diversity: the range of different family structures in society, including lone-parent, reconstituted, and same-sex families.
→Demographic trends: changes in birth rates, death rates, and migration that affect family size and structure, such as the ageing population.

Marking Points

Award credit for demonstrating understanding of the social construction of childhood, referencing key theorists such as Aries or Postman.
Credit for effectively evaluating the 'disappearance of childhood' thesis, using contrasting evidence from studies on media influence, adultification, or child labour.
Award credit for analysing the impact of globalisation on childhood, linking to issues such as child consumers, cultural homogenisation, or global inequalities.

Examiner Tips

💡Always define key terms precisely, such as 'social construction', to establish a strong foundation for your arguments.
💡Structure essays to first outline the construction of childhood, then critically assess the disappearance debate, and finally evaluate globalisation's effects, ensuring a balanced conclusion that addresses all learning objectives.
💡Always define key terms in your answer, such as 'family' or 'household', to show precise understanding.
💡Use the PEE (Point, Evidence, Explanation) structure in essays: make a point, support with evidence (e.g., sociologist or statistic), and explain its significance.
💡When evaluating, consider the strengths and limitations of each theory, and use phrases like 'However, this view is criticised for...' to show critical analysis.

Common Mistakes

Confusing the social construction of childhood with biological immaturity, failing to distinguish between the two concepts.
Failing to differentiate between the concepts of 'childhood' and 'adolescence', treating them as synonymous.
Over-generalising the disappearance of childhood without considering cross-cultural variations or the persistence of traditional childhoods.
Misconception: The nuclear family is the most common family type in the UK. Correction: While it is still significant, statistics show that lone-parent families and cohabiting couples are increasing, and the nuclear family is no longer the majority.
Misconception: The symmetrical family is the norm today. Correction: While Young and Willmott argued this in the 1970s, later research (e.g., by Duncombe and Marsden) shows that women still do the majority of domestic work, leading to the 'triple shift'.
Misconception: Divorce is the main cause of family breakdown. Correction: Many families are 'broken' by separation of cohabiting couples, and divorce rates have actually declined since the 1990s, while cohabitation has increased.

Revision Plan

1Week 1: Focus on key concepts and theories. Create flashcards for definitions and theorists (e.g., Parsons, Zaretsky, Oakley).
2Week 2: Explore family diversity and demographic changes. Use case studies and statistics to illustrate trends.
3Week 3: Practice exam questions. Start with short-answer questions, then move to 10-mark and 20-mark essays.
4Week 4: Review and self-test. Use active recall to memorise key studies and evaluations, and attempt past papers under timed conditions.

Exam Question Types

📋Short-answer questions (4-6 marks) asking to 'outline' or 'explain' a concept, e.g., 'Outline two functions of the family.'
📋10-mark questions asking to 'outline and explain' or 'analyse' two reasons or ways, requiring clear points with evidence.
📋20-mark essay questions with a statement to 'evaluate', e.g., 'Evaluate the view that the nuclear family is no longer the norm.'
📋Data response questions where you interpret statistics on family trends and apply sociological explanations.

Command Word Expectations (AQA)

Outline

Provide a brief description of key points without detailed explanation. For example, 'Outline two functions of the family' requires listing functions with minimal elaboration.

Explain

Give reasons or causes for a phenomenon. For example, 'Explain why the divorce rate has increased' requires detailed reasons with evidence.

Evaluate

Assess the strengths and weaknesses of a theory or view, and come to a reasoned conclusion. For example, 'Evaluate the view that the nuclear family is no longer the norm' requires a balanced argument with a final judgement.

How Students Lose Marks (Examiner Pitfalls)

Pitfall: Students often confuse the functionalist view of the nuclear family with the Marxist perspective, leading to vague answers that lack theoretical precision.

❌ Weak Answer (Loses Marks):The family is good for society because it keeps things stable and helps people feel safe.

Example improved answer:Functionalists argue that the nuclear family performs essential functions for society, such as the stabilisation of adult personalities (Parsons) and primary socialisation, contributing to social cohesion. In contrast, Marxists, like Zaretsky, argue that the family serves capitalism by providing emotional support for workers and acting as a unit of consumption, thereby perpetuating class inequality.

Examiner Tip: Always explicitly name the theory and key sociologist, and contrast it with at least one other perspective to demonstrate depth.

Pitfall: In essays on family diversity, students often list different family types without linking them to wider social changes or evaluating the extent of diversity.

❌ Weak Answer (Loses Marks):There are lots of different families now, like single-parent and same-sex families.

Example improved answer:The Rapoports (1982) identified five types of family diversity: organisational, cultural, social class, life-course, and cohort. This diversity reflects broader social changes such as secularisation, increased female employment, and the legalisation of same-sex marriage. However, some sociologists, like Chester, argue that the nuclear family remains the dominant ideal, and diversity is not as widespread as postmodernists claim.

Examiner Tip: Use evidence from studies and statistics to support claims, and always evaluate by considering the extent and significance of diversity.

Step-by-Step Worked Solutions

Question: Outline and explain two ways in which government policies may affect family life. (10 marks)

1.Step 1: Identify two distinct government policies (e.g., maternity/paternity leave, tax credits, divorce laws).
2.Step 2: For each policy, explain the direct effect on family structure or roles (e.g., increased female employment due to maternity leave).
3.Step 3: Link to sociological concepts (e.g., symmetrical family, dual-earner families) and provide a brief example or evidence.

Final Answer: Government policies such as parental leave encourage both parents to share childcare, promoting gender equality and the symmetrical family. Tax credits and benefits can reduce child poverty, but may also create dependency, affecting family stability.

Question: Analyse two reasons for the increase in the divorce rate since 1969. (10 marks)

1.Step 1: Identify two reasons (e.g., changes in law, secularisation, changing attitudes, feminist movement).
2.Step 2: For each reason, explain the mechanism (e.g., the 1969 Divorce Reform Act made divorce easier).
3.Step 3: Use sociological evidence (e.g., statistics on divorce peaks after legal changes) and link to wider social changes.

Final Answer: The increase in divorce is partly due to legal changes, such as the 1969 Divorce Reform Act, which widened grounds for divorce. Additionally, secularisation has reduced religious stigma, making divorce more socially acceptable, as evidenced by rising divorce rates despite stable church attendance.

Active Recall Memory Test

What are the five types of family diversity identified by the Rapoports?

Key Fact: Organisational, cultural, social class, life-course, and cohort diversity.

Who coined the term 'triple shift' and what does it refer to?

Key Fact: Duncombe and Marsden; it refers to women's unpaid domestic work, paid employment, and emotional work in relationships.

What is the 'cereal packet family' and who used this term?

Key Fact: A term used by Leach to describe the idealised nuclear family image portrayed in advertising, which is unrealistic.

Name two demographic changes affecting family size in the UK.

Key Fact: Declining birth rates and increasing life expectancy (ageing population).

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between a family and a household?

A family is a group of people related by blood, marriage, or adoption, whereas a household is a group of people who live together, regardless of their relationship. For example, a group of students sharing a flat is a household but not a family. This distinction is important in sociology because household structures can vary widely, and not all households are families.

Why is the divorce rate increasing in the UK?

The divorce rate increased significantly after the 1969 Divorce Reform Act, which made divorce easier. Other factors include secularisation (reduced religious influence), changing social attitudes (less stigma), and the feminist movement, which has empowered women to leave unhappy marriages. Additionally, increased female employment has made women financially independent, enabling them to divorce. However, the divorce rate has actually declined slightly since the 1990s, partly because more couples choose to cohabit instead of marry.

What is the symmetrical family?

The symmetrical family is a concept developed by Young and Willmott (1973) to describe a family where roles and responsibilities are shared equally between partners. They argued that this family form was becoming more common due to changes like women's employment and men's greater involvement in childcare. However, later sociologists like Oakley criticised this view, arguing that women still do the majority of domestic work, and the 'symmetry' is often exaggerated.

How do Marxist sociologists view the family?

Marxists argue that the family serves the interests of capitalism. For example, Zaretsky (1976) claimed that the family provides emotional support for workers, allowing them to cope with exploitation, and acts as a unit of consumption, where goods are bought to benefit the capitalist economy. Marxists also argue that the family reproduces the workforce and perpetuates class inequality by socialising children into accepting hierarchy. This contrasts with functionalists, who see the family as beneficial for society as a whole.

What is the 'triple shift'?

The 'triple shift' is a term coined by Duncombe and Marsden (1995) to describe the three types of work that women do in families: paid employment, domestic work (such as cleaning and cooking), and emotional work (managing relationships and providing emotional support). This concept challenges the idea of the symmetrical family, showing that women often bear a disproportionate burden of unpaid work, even when they are also in paid employment.

Is the nuclear family still the norm in the UK?

While the nuclear family remains a common and culturally idealised form, statistics show that it is no longer the statistical norm. According to the Office for National Statistics, the proportion of households with a married couple with dependent children has declined, while lone-parent families, cohabiting couples, and same-sex families have increased. Sociologists like Chester argue that the nuclear family is still the 'neo-conventional' ideal, but postmodernists highlight the diversity of family forms today.

Families and Households explained

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Families and Households exam tips

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