The 'Great Power', 1556–1598 (A-level only): Control of the Mediterranean:…

The idea

Philip II’s foreign policy in the Mediterranean was dominated by the existential threat of the Ottoman Empire (the Turks). Following early setbacks like Djerba (1560), Philip formed the Holy League, achieving a decisive naval victory at Lepanto in 1571, which halted Ottoman expansion, though it did not secure total Mediterranean control. Concurrently, the death of the Portuguese King Sebastian in 1578 created a succession crisis. Philip claimed the throne, sending the Duke of Alba to conquer Portugal in 1580. This union brought the vast Portuguese overseas empire and naval fleet under Spanish control. Philip carefully managed the relationship by respecting Portuguese laws, customs, and administrative autonomy, establishing the Council of Portugal to ensure local elites remained cooperative, thereby creating a formidable Iberian Union.

What earns the marks

• Assess the significance of the Battle of Lepanto (1571) in halting Ottoman naval dominance in the Mediterranean.
• Evaluate the strategic and economic benefits of the 1580 annexation of Portugal, including access to its Atlantic fleet and colonial wealth.
• Analyse Philip II's methods of integrating Portugal, specifically his use of the Council of Portugal and preservation of local fueros (laws).
• Examine the limitations of Spanish control in the Mediterranean post-Lepanto, noting the continued threat of piracy and the 1580 truce with the Ottomans.

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Claiming Lepanto permanently destroyed the Ottoman navy.

  Put it right: The Ottomans rebuilt their fleet quickly, though they avoided major naval confrontations with Spain thereafter.

• Assuming Portugal was fully assimilated into Castile.

  Put it right: Philip II maintained Portuguese autonomy, keeping its separate laws, customs, and administrative councils.

• Confusing the timeline of Mediterranean and Atlantic priorities.

  Put it right: Philip shifted his primary focus from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic (Portugal, England, Netherlands) only after the 1580 truce with the Turks.

Exam tips

• Link the conquest of Portugal to Spain's shift from a Mediterranean-focused power to an Atlantic-focused empire.
• Use the Holy League as an example of Philip II successfully combining religious ideology with strategic defence.
• When evaluating Philip's successes, contrast his careful, successful management of Portugal with his mishandling of the Netherlands.