Opposition: faction; the Red Terror and the purges

The idea

The Bolshevik consolidation of power faced significant opposition, which was systematically crushed through state-sponsored violence. Internal opposition manifested as 'faction', notably the Workers' Opposition and Democratic Centralists, prompting Lenin's 1921 Ban on Factions to enforce party unity. External and ideological opposition was met with the Red Terror (1918–1922), spearheaded by the Cheka under Dzerzhinsky, targeting class enemies, SRs, and Mensheviks. Later, Stalin escalated this machinery during the Great Purges (1936–1938). Using the NKVD, Stalin eliminated Old Bolsheviks like Zinoviev and Kamenev through show trials, while the Yezhovshchina purged the military and wider society, cementing his absolute totalitarian control.

What earns the marks

• Identify the 1921 Ban on Factions as a pivotal mechanism for eliminating internal party debate and centralising power.
• Explain the role of the Cheka during the Red Terror in suppressing political opponents, such as Socialist Revolutionaries, and enforcing compliance during the Civil War.
• Analyse the progression from Lenin's targeted terror against class enemies to Stalin's widespread purges affecting loyal party members and the military.
• Evaluate the impact of the show trials in legitimising the elimination of Stalin's political rivals and creating a climate of paranoia.

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Confusing the Red Terror with the Great Purges.

  Put it right: The Red Terror occurred under Lenin targeting class enemies, whereas the Great Purges occurred under Stalin targeting party members and the wider population.

• Assuming the Ban on Factions eliminated all opposition immediately.

  Put it right: It formally banned organised opposition groups within the party but covert dissent and power struggles continued until Stalin's purges.

• Treating the Cheka, OGPU, and NKVD as identical.

  Put it right: They were distinct evolutionary stages of the secret police, with the NKVD specifically executing Stalin's Great Purges.

Exam tips

• Link the 1921 Ban on Factions directly to Stalin's later ability to accuse rivals of factionalism and justify their execution.
• Use specific statistics or named targets, such as the execution of Tukhachevsky, to demonstrate the scale and impact of the military purges.
• When evaluating the motives for the purges, contrast Stalin's paranoia and desire for absolute power with the economic need for gulag labour.