Russia, 1917–1953 – Bolshevik consolidation, 1918–1924: Foreign relations…

The idea

Bolshevik foreign policy balanced global revolution with state survival. Foreign powers intervened in the Civil War to support the Whites, reflecting deep anti-Bolshevik attitudes. Concurrently, Lenin established the Comintern to export revolution. The Russo-Polish War tested this expansionism, but Soviet defeat forced a pragmatic shift. This drove discussions leading to the 1922 Rapallo Treaty with Germany, ending diplomatic isolation. By 1924, Britain granted official recognition, though relations remained fragile, as seen when the forged 'Zinoviev letter' damaged Anglo-Soviet ties. By Lenin's death in 1924, his rule had transformed Russia into a consolidated, internationally recognised, yet ideologically isolated one-party state.

What earns the marks

• Assess the motivations for foreign intervention in the Civil War, distinguishing between wartime strategic aims and post-1918 anti-communist ideology.
• Explain the dual track of Soviet foreign policy: the Comintern's revolutionary aims versus the Narkomindel's pursuit of traditional diplomacy.
• Evaluate the Russo-Polish War as a turning point that ended hopes of immediate European revolution and necessitated peaceful coexistence.
• Analyse the significance of the Rapallo Treaty in breaking the diplomatic isolation of both Soviet Russia and Weimar Germany.
• Examine the impact of the Zinoviev letter on Anglo-Soviet relations and its role in highlighting the contradictions of Soviet foreign policy.

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Claiming foreign intervention was a massive, coordinated effort to destroy Bolshevism.

  Put it right: Emphasise that intervention was uncoordinated, lacked clear objectives after WWI ended, and involved limited troop engagements.

• Confusing the Comintern with the Soviet government's diplomatic arm.

  Put it right: Distinguish between the Comintern, which aimed to overthrow foreign governments, and the Commissariat for Foreign Affairs, which sought trade and official recognition.

• Stating the Zinoviev letter was a genuine directive that caused the fall of the British government.

  Put it right: Note that it was a forgery that strained relations, rather than the sole cause of the Labour government's electoral defeat.

Exam tips

• Use the concept of 'dual foreign policy' to explain the contradictions between Comintern activities and the pursuit of trade treaties.
• Highlight the Rapallo Treaty as a masterstroke of pragmatic diplomacy, uniting Europe's two outcast nations for mutual economic and military benefit.
• When assessing Lenin's rule by 1924, synthesize domestic consolidation with the achievement of official recognition by major powers like Britain.