Pearson Edexcel · A-Level · History
Course version: 9HI0 · Version from Sept 2015
South Africa, 1948–94: from apartheid state to ‘rainbow nation’ - 2…
Full specification wording
Paper 2, Option 2F.2: South Africa, 1948–94: from apartheid state to ‘rainbow nation’ - 2 Radicalisation of resistance and the consolidation of National Party power, 1960–68: African nationalist radicalisation, 1961–68: moves to armed struggle; the ANC and Umkhonto we Sizwe; the PAC and Poqo; the Rivonia Trial and significance for Nelson Mandela; the impact of exile and imprisonment on the ANC and PAC.
After Sharpeville and the banning of the ANC and PAC in 1960, both organisations concluded that non-violent protest could not end apartheid.
Checked against the Pearson Edexcel 9HI0 specification (opens in a new tab) on .
- Point 3 of 4
- 3 key terms
Study notes
From the checked teaching notes for this specification point.
The idea
After Sharpeville and the banning of the ANC and PAC in 1960, both organisations concluded that non-violent protest could not end apartheid. From 1961 they moved to armed struggle. The ANC created Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) in 1961, initially targeting symbols of the state while trying to avoid loss of life. The PAC formed Poqo, which was less centrally controlled and more openly violent. The state responded with mass arrests and the Rivonia Trial (1963–64), where Mandela and others were convicted; Mandela’s speech and sentence made him a global symbol. Bans, exile and imprisonment disrupted both movements, but also created international solidarity networks and pushed the ANC towards a broader armed and diplomatic strategy.
What earns the marks
- Explains why the shift to armed struggle occurred after Sharpeville and the 1960 bans, including the failure of peaceful protest and the closing of legal political space.
- Distinguishes the ANC’s approach through Umkhonto we Sizwe from the PAC’s approach through Poqo, noting differences in organisation, targeting and control.
- Analyses the Rivonia Trial as a turning point: the arrest of leadership, the legal proceedings, Mandela’s statement, and the wider symbolic significance of his imprisonment.
- Assesses the impact of exile and imprisonment on the ANC and PAC, including organisational disruption, relocation of leadership abroad, and the development of international campaigns.
- Uses specific evidence from 1961–68, such as the formation of MK, the sabotage campaign, Poqo activity, the Rivonia arrests and sentences, and the banning of organisations.
Common mistakes and how to put them right
Treating the ANC and PAC as identical in their armed strategies.
Put it right: Explain that MK was more centrally directed and initially avoided civilian casualties, while Poqo was more diffuse and violent.
Assuming the Rivonia Trial ended all resistance.
Put it right: Show that it decapitated the leadership inside South Africa but resistance continued through exile networks and later underground structures.
Confusing the dates of Sharpeville and the formation of MK.
Put it right: Sharpeville was 1960 and MK was formed in 1961, so the radicalisation followed the massacre and bans.
Exam tips
- Link each organisation’s actions to the changing political context, rather than describing events in isolation.
- When discussing Mandela’s significance, connect his trial and imprisonment to both internal resistance and international opinion.
- Use precise terms such as ‘armed struggle’, ‘sabotage’, ‘bans’ and ‘exile’ to show command of the period.
Try the lesson
The start of the Paper 2, Option 2F.2: South Africa, 1948–94: from apartheid state to ‘rainbow nation’ - 2 Radicalisation of resistance and the consolidation of National Party power, 1960–68: African nationalist radicalisation, 1961–68: moves to armed struggle; the ANC and Umkhonto we Sizwe; the PAC and Poqo; the Rivonia Trial and significance for Nelson Mandela; the impact of exile and imprisonment on the ANC and PAC. lesson, made from checked teaching notes for this specification point.
Have a go first
Which armed wing was established by the African National Congress in 1961 to begin a campaign of sabotage against apartheid targets?
Listen
After Sharpeville and the banning of the ANC and PAC in 1960, both organisations concluded that non-violent protest could not end apartheid. From 1961 they moved to armed struggle. The ANC created Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) in 1961, initially targeting symbols of the state while trying to avoid loss of life. The PAC formed Poqo, which was less centrally controlled and more openly violent. The state responded with mass arrests and the Rivonia Trial (1963–64), where Mandela and others were convicted; Mandela’s speech and sentence made him a global symbol. Bans, exile and imprisonment disrupted both movements, but also created international solidarity networks and pushed the ANC towards a broader armed and diplomatic strategy. A strong answer earns marks for these points. Explains why the shift to armed struggle occurred after Sharpeville and the 1960 bans, including the failure of peaceful protest and the closing of legal political space. Distinguishes the ANC’s approach through Umkhonto we Sizwe from the PAC’s approach through Poqo, noting differences in organisation, targeting and control. Analyses the Rivonia Trial as a turning point: the arrest of leadership, the legal proceedings, Mandela’s statement, and the wider symbolic significance of his imprisonment. Assesses the impact of exile and imprisonment on the ANC and PAC, including organisational disruption, relocation of leadership abroad, and the development of international campaigns. A common slip: Treating the ANC and PAC as identical in their armed strategies. Instead, explain that MK was more centrally directed and initially avoided civilian casualties, while Poqo was more diffuse and violent. Exam tip: Link each organisation’s actions to the changing political context, rather than describing events in isolation.
Put the events in order
Put these events in the order they happened, earliest first.
- 1. Sharpeville massacre and banning of the ANC and PAC
- 2. Rivonia Trial begins, leading to convictions of Mandela and others
- 3. Formation of Umkhonto we Sizwe by the ANC
Key words
Say what each word means before you turn the card.
Nationalist competition and strategy
Try answering aloud or in your head before turning the card.
Symbolism and leadership
Try answering aloud or in your head before turning the card.
International solidarity and exile
Try answering aloud or in your head before turning the card.
See every definition
- Nationalist competition and strategy
- The ANC's Umkhonto we Sizwe was more centrally directed and initially targeted symbols of the state while trying to avoid loss of life, whereas the PAC's Poqo was less centrally controlled and more openly violent.
- Symbolism and leadership
- At the Rivonia Trial Mandela and others were convicted, and his speech and sentence made him a global symbol.
- International solidarity and exile
- Bans, exile and imprisonment disrupted both movements but also created international solidarity networks and pushed the ANC towards a broader armed and diplomatic strategy.
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Test your understanding of Paper 2, Option 2F.2: South Africa, 1948–94: from apartheid state to ‘rainbow nation’ - 2 Radicalisation of resistance and the consolidation of National Party power, 1960–68: African nationalist radicalisation, 1961–68: moves to armed struggle; the ANC and Umkhonto we Sizwe; the PAC and Poqo; the Rivonia Trial and significance for Nelson Mandela; the impact of exile and imprisonment on the ANC and PAC.
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