Paper 2, Option 2F.2: South Africa, 1948–94: from apartheid state to ‘rainbow nation’ - 2 Radicalisation of resistance and the consolidation of National Party power, 1960–68 — Edexcel A-Level History
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Paper 2, Option 2F.2: South Africa, 1948–94: from apartheid state to ‘rainbow nation’ - 2 Radicalisation of resistance and the consolidation of National Party power, 1960–68 explained
Paper 2, Option 2F.2: South Africa, 1948–94: from apartheid state to ‘rainbow nation’ - 2 Radicalisation of resistance and the consolidation of National Party power, 1960–68 covers 4 specification points, including Peaceful protest; the Sharpeville Massacre and… and Verwoerd’s aims; the significance of…. Open a point below for its explanation and revision guidance.
Resistance to apartheid and government reaction, 1960– 61: peaceful protest; the Sharpeville Massacre and its significance; the banning of political parties and the state of emergency.
In 1960–61, resistance to apartheid shifted from peaceful protest to state repression. The PAC’s anti-pass campaign began on 21 March 1960 at Sharpeville, where police killed 69 protesters. The Sharpeville Massacre shocked the world and exposed apartheid’s violence. In response, the government declared a state of emergency on 30 March 1960, detaining thousands without trial. On 8 April 1960, it banned the ANC and PAC under the Unlawful Organisations Act. Peaceful protest had failed; both movements turned to armed struggle. The events radicalised resistance and consolidated National Party power.
Creating a republic, 1960–61: Verwoerd’s aims; the significance of Macmillan’s ‘wind of change’ speech; a republic established, 1960–61; leaving the Commonwealth.
Between 1960 and 1961, Prime Minister Hendrik Verwoerd pursued a republic to sever South Africa’s constitutional link with the British Crown and entrench Afrikaner nationalist control. Macmillan’s ‘wind of change’ speech in Cape Town on 3 February 1960 signalled Britain’s opposition to apartheid and acceptance of African independence, alarming Verwoerd. A whites-only referendum on 5 October 1960 approved a republic by 52.29% to 47.71%. The republic was established on 31 May 1961, but South Africa had to leave the Commonwealth in March 1961 after opposition from newly independent African and Asian members. This isolation reinforced National Party power and apartheid.
African nationalist radicalisation, 1961–68: moves to armed struggle; the ANC and Umkhonto we Sizwe; the PAC and Poqo; the Rivonia Trial and significance for Nelson Mandela; the impact of exile and imprisonment on the ANC and PAC.
After Sharpeville and the banning of the ANC and PAC in 1960, both organisations concluded that non-violent protest could not end apartheid. From 1961 they moved to armed struggle. The ANC created Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) in 1961, initially targeting symbols of the state while trying to avoid loss of life. The PAC formed Poqo, which was less centrally controlled and more openly violent. The state responded with mass arrests and the Rivonia Trial (1963–64), where Mandela and others were convicted; Mandela’s speech and sentence made him a global symbol. Bans, exile and imprisonment disrupted both movements, but also created international solidarity networks and pushed the ANC towards a broader armed and diplomatic strategy.
Strengthening ‘separate development’, 1961–68: economic recovery, including international investment; developing the Bantustans; diplomatic ties; Vorster’s use of police powers and defence forces.
Between 1961 and 1968 the National Party government tried to entrench ‘separate development’ while restoring economic confidence after Sharpeville. Economic recovery was aided by foreign investment and gold exports, which funded state projects. The Bantustans were developed as nominally self-governing African homelands, but they remained economically dependent and politically controlled. South Africa sought diplomatic ties, especially with neighbouring states and Western powers, to counter isolation. Vorster, as Minister of Justice and later Prime Minister, expanded police powers and used the defence forces to suppress dissent, helping the state to contain opposition during this period.
Your focus
- Describe the methods and aims of peaceful protest against apartheid in the 1950s and early 1960.
- Explain the causes, events, and consequences of the Sharpeville Massacre.
- Assess how the government’s reaction to protest, including bans and the state of emergency, radicalised resistance and consolidated National Party power.
Show all 12 objectives
- Explain Verwoerd’s aims in creating a republic and how they related to apartheid and Afrikaner nationalism.
- Analyse the significance of Macmillan’s ‘wind of change’ speech for South Africa’s international position.
- Evaluate the process and consequences of establishing a republic and leaving the Commonwealth in 1960–61.
- Students can explain why the ANC and PAC turned to armed struggle between 1961 and 1968.
- Students can compare the roles of Umkhonto we Sizwe and Poqo in resisting apartheid.
- Students can evaluate the significance of the Rivonia Trial and the exile and imprisonment of ANC and PAC leaders.
- Students can explain how economic recovery and international investment strengthened the apartheid state between 1961 and 1968.
- Students can describe the development of the Bantustans and their role in ‘separate development’.
- Students can evaluate Vorster’s use of police powers and defence forces to suppress opposition.
Paper 2, Option 2F.2: South Africa, 1948–94: from apartheid state to ‘rainbow nation’ - 2 Radicalisation of resistance and the consolidation of National Party power, 1960–68 exam tips
Marking Points
- Explains that peaceful protest before 1960 included the 1952 Defiance Campaign, the 1955 Freedom Charter, and the 1959 anti-pass campaign, showing mass mobilisation but limited concessions.
- Describes the Sharpeville Massacre: on 21 March 1960, PAC protesters gathered at Sharpeville police station against pass laws; police opened fire, killing 69 and wounding 180, many shot in the back.
- Analyses the significance of Sharpeville: it exposed apartheid brutality, provoked international condemnation, led to a state of emergency, and prompted the banning of the ANC and PAC.
- Explains the government reaction: a state of emergency declared on 30 March 1960, mass detentions without trial, and the banning of political parties on 8 April 1960 under the Unlawful Organisations Act.
- Evaluates the consequences: the ANC and PAC were forced underground, leading to the formation of Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) in 1961 and Poqo, marking a turn to armed struggle.
- Explains Verwoerd’s aims: to make South Africa a republic, remove the British Crown as head of state, and strengthen Afrikaner nationalist control while maintaining white minority rule.
- Analyses Macmillan’s ‘wind of change’ speech: delivered in Cape Town on 3 February 1960, it warned that Britain would not oppose African majority rule and signalled a shift in British policy, isolating South Africa internationally.
- Describes the establishment of the republic: a whites-only referendum on 5 October 1960 approved a republic with 52.29% in favour; the Republic of South Africa was proclaimed on 31 May 1961.
- Explains leaving the Commonwealth: South Africa’s application to remain was opposed by African and Asian members; Verwoerd withdrew the application in March 1961, and South Africa left the Commonwealth.
- Evaluates the significance: the republic consolidated National Party power and apartheid, but increased international isolation and criticism, setting the context for further radicalisation.
- Explains why the shift to armed struggle occurred after Sharpeville and the 1960 bans, including the failure of peaceful protest and the closing of legal political space.
- Distinguishes the ANC’s approach through Umkhonto we Sizwe from the PAC’s approach through Poqo, noting differences in organisation, targeting and control.
- Analyses the Rivonia Trial as a turning point: the arrest of leadership, the legal proceedings, Mandela’s statement, and the wider symbolic significance of his imprisonment.
- Assesses the impact of exile and imprisonment on the ANC and PAC, including organisational disruption, relocation of leadership abroad, and the development of international campaigns.
- Uses specific evidence from 1961–68, such as the formation of MK, the sabotage campaign, Poqo activity, the Rivonia arrests and sentences, and the banning of organisations.
- Explains how economic recovery after 1960 was supported by international investment and the gold trade, and how this strengthened the state’s capacity.
- Describes the development of the Bantustans as part of ‘separate development’, including their limited self-government and economic dependence.
- Analyses South Africa’s diplomatic efforts to build ties and reduce isolation, including relations with selected African states and Western countries.
- Assesses Vorster’s use of police powers and defence forces to suppress opposition, including legislation, security policing and military deployment.
- Uses specific evidence from 1961–68, such as investment figures, Bantustan legislation, diplomatic visits, and security legislation.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Use precise dates and casualty figures to support your arguments, such as 21 March 1960, 69 killed, and 8 April 1960 for the banning of parties.
- 💡Link each event to the theme of radicalisation and consolidation of National Party power, explaining how repression led to a shift in resistance tactics.
- 💡When analysing significance, consider short-term and long-term impacts, including international reaction, internal repression, and the move to armed struggle.
- 💡Use precise dates and percentages, such as 3 February 1960 for Macmillan’s speech, 5 October 1960 for the referendum, and 52.29% in favour.
- 💡Link Verwoerd’s aims to the broader theme of National Party consolidation and the radicalisation of resistance.
- 💡Explain the significance of leaving the Commonwealth in terms of international isolation and its impact on apartheid South Africa.
- 💡Link each organisation’s actions to the changing political context, rather than describing events in isolation.
- 💡When discussing Mandela’s significance, connect his trial and imprisonment to both internal resistance and international opinion.
- 💡Use precise terms such as ‘armed struggle’, ‘sabotage’, ‘bans’ and ‘exile’ to show command of the period.
- 💡Connect economic and diplomatic developments to the regime’s aim of maintaining white rule and countering isolation.
- 💡When discussing Bantustans, refer to specific legislation and their lack of viable economic bases.
- 💡Use evidence of police and defence force actions to show how the state enforced ‘separate development’.
Common Mistakes
- Confusing the Sharpeville Massacre with the Soweto Uprising of 1976; correction: Sharpeville occurred on 21 March 1960 and involved pass-law protests, while Soweto was a 1976 student protest against Afrikaans-medium instruction.
- Stating that the ANC was banned before Sharpeville; correction: the ANC and PAC were banned on 8 April 1960, after the massacre and the declaration of the state of emergency.
- Claiming that peaceful protest continued unchanged after 1960; correction: the bans and state repression pushed the ANC and PAC towards armed struggle, with MK formed in 1961.
- Stating that the republic was established in 1960; correction: the referendum was in October 1960, but the republic was proclaimed on 31 May 1961.
- Believing that Macmillan’s speech supported apartheid; correction: it warned of the ‘wind of change’ and indicated Britain would not block African majority rule, opposing apartheid.
- Assuming South Africa remained in the Commonwealth after becoming a republic; correction: it left the Commonwealth in March 1961 after opposition from other member states.
- Treating the ANC and PAC as identical in their armed strategies; correction: explain that MK was more centrally directed and initially avoided civilian casualties, while Poqo was more diffuse and violent.
- Assuming the Rivonia Trial ended all resistance; correction: show that it decapitated the leadership inside South Africa but resistance continued through exile networks and later underground structures.
- Confusing the dates of Sharpeville and the formation of MK; correction: Sharpeville was 1960 and MK was formed in 1961, so the radicalisation followed the massacre and bans.
- Assuming the Bantustans were genuinely independent; correction: they were designed to be dependent and were not internationally recognised as sovereign states.
- Overlooking the role of international investment in sustaining apartheid; correction: explain how foreign capital and trade helped the economy recover and fund state repression.
- Confusing Vorster’s roles; correction: he was Minister of Justice, Police and Prisons before becoming Prime Minister in 1966, so his use of police powers predates his premiership.