Moral philosophy

Overview

Moral philosophy, or ethics, is the branch of philosophy that asks what it means to live a good life and what makes our actions right or wrong. For your GCSE, you are required to master three major normative ethical theories: Utilitarianism (focusing on consequences), Kantian Deontological Ethics (focusing on duty), and Aristotelian Virtue Ethics (focusing on character). Examiners expect you not only to define the key concepts of each theory accurately but also to apply them to real-world ethical dilemmas—such as stealing, telling lies, or eating animals—and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses. This guide breaks down each theory, highlights common pitfalls, and provides the examiner-focused commentary you need to excel.

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1. Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory; it judges the morality of an action solely by its outcomes. The core principle is to maximise utility (happiness or pleasure) for the greatest number of people.

Jeremy Bentham and Act Utilitarianism

Key Concept: Bentham argued that pleasure is the only intrinsic good. His approach is quantitative—we should measure the amount of pleasure an act produces.

The Hedonic Calculus: Bentham devised this to calculate utility across seven dimensions:

• Intensity (how strong?)
• Duration (how long?)
• Certainty (how likely?)
• Propinquity (how soon?)
• Fecundity (will it lead to more?)
• Purity (will it lead to pain?)
• Extent (how many people?)

John Stuart Mill and Rule Utilitarianism

Key Concept: Mill, Bentham's godson, argued that pleasures differ in quality, not just quantity. He distinguished between higher pleasures (intellectual/moral) and lower pleasures (physical). Mill famously stated, "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied."

Act vs Rule: While Act Utilitarianism (Bentham) calculates utility for each individual action, Rule Utilitarianism (Mill) argues we should follow general rules that, if universally adopted, would maximise happiness (e.g., "do not steal").

Critical Issue: The Tyranny of the Majority. If torturing one innocent person brings immense pleasure to a million people, Act Utilitarianism might justify it. This deeply counter-intuitive result is a key evaluative point.

2. Kantian Deontological Ethics

Immanuel Kant completely rejected consequentialism. For Kant, an action is only morally right if it is done out of duty, regardless of the outcome.

The Good Will and Duty

Key Concept: The only thing unconditionally good is a "good will"—a will that acts purely out of reverence for the moral law (duty). Acting out of compassion or self-interest has no moral worth.

The Categorical Imperative

Kant argued that moral duties are categorical—they apply unconditionally to everyone, always. This is distinct from hypothetical imperatives ("If you want X, do Y").

Formula of Universal Law: "Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law." (e.g., Lying is wrong because if everyone lied, communication would break down).

Formula of Humanity: "Act so that you treat humanity... always as an end and never as a means only." (e.g., You cannot use a person merely as a tool to achieve your goals).

Critical Issue: Clashing Duties. What if telling the truth (a duty) leads to someone's murder (violating the duty to preserve life)? Kant's rigid system struggles to resolve conflicting absolute duties.

3. Aristotelian Virtue Ethics

Aristotle shifts the focus from "What should I do?" to "What kind of person should I be?" It is an agent-centred theory.

Eudaimonia and the Function Argument

Key Concept: The ultimate goal of human life is Eudaimonia (flourishing or living well). Aristotle argues that everything has a function (ergon). The function of a human is to exercise reason excellently. To do this, we need virtues (arête).

The Doctrine of the Mean

Key Concept: A virtue is the golden mean between two vices: a vice of deficiency and a vice of excess. For example, courage is the mean between cowardice (deficiency) and recklessness (excess).

Habituation and Practical Wisdom

We are not born virtuous. We develop virtues through habituation (practising virtuous acts). To navigate complex moral situations and find the mean, we must develop practical wisdom (phronesis).

Critical Issue: The Skill Analogy. Aristotle compares becoming virtuous to learning a skill (like playing the harp). Critics argue that moral virtue is fundamentally different from a practical skill, as morality involves intention and emotion in ways skills do not.

Comparing the Theories