Global governance of the Earth's oceans — Eduqas A-Level Geography

The global governance of the Earth's oceans refers to the international legal frameworks, institutions, and agreements that regulate human activities in the oceans, which cover over 70% of the planet's surface. Central to this is the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), often called the 'constitution for the oceans'. UNCLOS establishes rules for maritime zones (territorial seas, exclusive economic zones, and the high seas), navigational rights, resource exploitation, and environmental protection. This topic is crucial because oceans are vital for climate regulation, biodiversity, food security, and global trade, yet they face threats like overfishing, pollution, and climate change.

In the WJEC A-Level Geography syllabus, this topic sits within the 'Global Governance' theme, linking to concepts of sovereignty, territoriality, and international cooperation. Students explore how governance structures attempt to manage common-pool resources, prevent conflict (e.g., over fishing grounds or oil reserves), and address transboundary issues like marine plastic pollution. The effectiveness of governance is assessed through case studies such as the governance of the Southern Ocean (Antarctic Treaty System) or the management of tuna stocks in the Pacific. Understanding this topic helps students critically evaluate the tension between national interests and global commons, a key theme in political geography.

Mastering this content requires students to engage with real-world examples and evaluate the successes and failures of governance mechanisms. For instance, while UNCLOS has reduced some conflicts, illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing remains a major challenge, highlighting enforcement gaps. Students should also consider the role of non-state actors like NGOs (e.g., Greenpeace) and multinational corporations in shaping ocean governance. This topic not only prepares students for exams but also fosters awareness of pressing global environmental issues and the complexities of international law.

• →UNCLOS maritime zones: territorial sea (12 nautical miles, full sovereignty), exclusive economic zone (200 nm, sovereign rights over resources), and high seas (beyond 200 nm, no state jurisdiction).
• →Common-pool resources and the 'tragedy of the commons': oceans as a shared resource prone to overexploitation without effective governance.
• →International institutions: International Seabed Authority (ISA) for deep-sea mining, Regional Fisheries Management Organisations (RFMOs) for fish stocks, and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) for shipping.
• →Environmental governance: MARPOL (pollution from ships), London Convention (dumping at sea), and the UN Sustainable Development Goal 14 (Life Below Water).
• →Geopolitical disputes: e.g., South China Sea (overlapping claims), Arctic Ocean (melting ice opening new routes and resources).

• Role of post-1945 supranational institutions (UN, UNESCO, EU, G7/G8, G20, G77, NATO) in ocean governance.
• Strategic value of oceans for superpowers and security issues (e.g., oil transit chokepoints, piracy).
• Impact of global flows including container shipping, oil tankers, and seafloor data cables.
• Geopolitical tensions regarding sovereignty, territorial limits, and contested ownership of islands/seabeds (e.g., Arctic Ocean).
• Injustices related to unequal access to ocean resources, particularly for landlocked countries and indigenous coastal peoples.
• Management of the Global Commons and marine ecosystems (e.g., no-catch zones, quotas, marine conservation zones).
• Sources and management of ocean pollution (e.g., terrestrial run-off, plastic patches, oil spills).
• Interaction of governance scales (local, regional, national, international, global) in ocean conservation.

• 💡Ensure case studies cover multiple scales of governance (local to global).
• 💡Use specific examples of supranational institutions and explain their specific role in ocean governance.
• 💡Clearly distinguish between the causes of pollution and the strategies used to manage it.
• 💡Apply the specialized concepts (causality, globalisation, mitigation, risk, sustainability) to the ocean context.
• 💡Be prepared to discuss the interaction between economic growth and environmental stability in marine environments.
• 💡Use specific case studies to illustrate governance successes and failures. For example, compare the effective management of the Patagonian toothfish in the Southern Ocean (CCAMLR) with the collapse of cod stocks off Newfoundland due to poor governance.
• 💡Evaluate the role of different actors: states, IGOs, NGOs, and TNCs. A high-level answer will discuss how power dynamics and economic interests shape governance outcomes, e.g., the influence of fishing industry lobbies on RFMO quotas.
• 💡Link to wider geographical themes: globalisation (shipping routes), sustainability (overfishing), and geopolitics (maritime disputes). Show how ocean governance connects to climate change (ocean acidification, sea-level rise) and biodiversity loss.

• Failing to link ocean governance to the concept of the Global Commons.
• Confusing the strategic value of oceans with purely environmental concerns.
• Neglecting the role of landlocked countries in the context of ocean resource injustice.
• Providing generic management strategies without referencing specific scales of governance.
• Overlooking the role of seafloor data cables in global connectivity and their associated risks.
• Misconception: The high seas are lawless and ungoverned. Correction: While no single state has sovereignty, the high seas are governed by UNCLOS and other treaties, though enforcement is weak.
• Misconception: The EEZ gives a state full ownership of the water column and seabed. Correction: The coastal state has sovereign rights for resource exploitation (fishing, oil) but must allow innocent passage of ships and cannot claim full territorial sovereignty.
• Misconception: International environmental agreements always work. Correction: Many agreements lack binding targets or enforcement mechanisms; for example, the UN Fish Stocks Agreement has been ineffective in preventing overfishing due to non-compliance.