Paper 3, Option 33: The witch craze in Britain, Europe and North America, c1580–c1750 - 2 The wider intellectual context: the coming of the age of science and reason — Edexcel A-Level History
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Paper 3, Option 33: The witch craze in Britain, Europe and North America, c1580–c1750 - 2 The wider intellectual context: the coming of the age of science and reason explained
Paper 3, Option 33: The witch craze in Britain, Europe and North America, c1580–c1750 - 2 The wider intellectual context: the coming of the age of science and reason covers 2 specification points, including The coexistence of new and older ideas and… and Francis Bacon and the empirical scientific…. Open a point below for its explanation and revision guidance.
Making sense of the universe and its impact, c1580–c1750: the coexistence of new and older ideas and impact of Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton.
This topic explores how people made sense of the universe between c1580 and c1750, focusing on the coexistence of new and older ideas and the impact of Kepler, Galileo and Newton. Older ideas included Aristotelian cosmology, a geocentric universe and biblical literalism. Kepler used elliptical orbits to refine heliocentrism; Galileo's telescopic observations and mechanics supported Copernicanism but clashed with the Church; Newton's Principia (1687) unified terrestrial and celestial motion through universal gravitation. These developments did not immediately replace older beliefs; astrology, providence and witchcraft beliefs coexisted with mechanical philosophy, and the new science gradually reshaped educated views of nature and the supernatural.
The changing approach to human understanding and knowledge, c1580–c1750 (key developments: Francis Bacon and the empirical scientific approach, the foundation of Gresham College 1597 and the Royal Society 1662, Thomas Hobbes’s deductive reasoning and materialism, John Locke and his Essay Concerning Human Understanding 1690).
Between 1580 and 1750, intellectual paradigms shifted from religious dogma to scientific reason. Francis Bacon pioneered the empirical approach, arguing knowledge must come from observation and inductive reasoning. This practical science was institutionalised by the foundation of Gresham College in 1597, which funded public lectures, and later the Royal Society in 1662, which promoted experimental philosophy. Conversely, Thomas Hobbes championed deductive reasoning and materialism, arguing that everything consists of matter and rejecting supernatural explanations. Finally, John Locke’s 1690 Essay Concerning Human Understanding argued that the mind is a blank slate at birth, cementing empiricism. These developments collectively undermined the intellectual foundations of the witch craze by demanding tangible proof.
Your focus
- Describe the older and new cosmological ideas that coexisted in the period c1580–c1750.
- Explain the specific contributions of Kepler, Galileo and Newton to changing understandings of the universe.
- Assess the impact of these scientific developments on wider intellectual contexts, including attitudes to witchcraft.
Show all 6 objectives
- Explain the difference between Bacon's empirical approach and Hobbes's deductive reasoning.
- Assess the significance of Gresham College and the Royal Society in promoting scientific collaboration.
- Analyse how Locke's theories on human understanding challenged traditional supernatural beliefs.
Paper 3, Option 33: The witch craze in Britain, Europe and North America, c1580–c1750 - 2 The wider intellectual context: the coming of the age of science and reason exam tips
Marking Points
- Explains the coexistence of new and older ideas, including Aristotelian cosmology, geocentrism and biblical literalism alongside heliocentrism and mechanical philosophy.
- Analyses Johannes Kepler's contribution, especially elliptical orbits and his refinement of heliocentric theory, and how this challenged older perfect-circle astronomy.
- Assesses Galileo Galilei's impact through telescopic observations, support for Copernicanism and conflict with religious authority.
- Evaluates Isaac Newton's Principia (1687) and universal gravitation as a synthesis that explained both terrestrial and celestial motion.
- Connects these scientific developments to changing intellectual contexts, including the decline of witchcraft beliefs among elites and the rise of reason and natural law.
- Recognises limits: older ideas persisted, and the new science was not immediately accepted by all, so change was gradual and uneven.
- Explain Bacon's inductive method and how it shifted focus towards empirical evidence and observation.
- Assess the role of Gresham College (1597) and the Royal Society (1662) in formalising and sharing scientific knowledge.
- Analyse Hobbes's materialism and deductive reasoning, specifically how his rejection of incorporeal spirits challenged witchcraft beliefs.
- Evaluate Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) and its argument that knowledge derives solely from sensory experience.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Use specific works and dates, such as Kepler's elliptical orbits, Galileo's telescopic observations and Newton's Principia (1687), to support arguments.
- 💡When discussing impact, distinguish between intellectual elites and popular beliefs, and between short-term controversy and long-term change.
- 💡Link scientific developments to the wider theme of changing attitudes to witchcraft without claiming simple causation.
- 💡Link the philosophical shift towards materialism directly to the decline in belief in supernatural entities like witches.
- 💡Use the Royal Society's motto 'Nullius in verba' (take nobody's word for it) to illustrate the new demand for empirical proof.
- 💡Contrast Locke's empiricism with traditional reliance on religious texts to show the changing basis of human knowledge.
Common Mistakes
- Presenting the Scientific Revolution as an instant replacement of old ideas; correction: emphasise coexistence, gradual acceptance and regional variation.
- Attributing heliocentrism solely to Galileo or Newton; correction: acknowledge earlier contributors such as Copernicus and Kepler's refinement of orbits.
- Assuming Newton's work ended witch beliefs directly; correction: explain indirect influence through changing views of natural law and providence, alongside other factors.
- Error: Confusing Bacon's inductive reasoning with Hobbes's deductive reasoning. Correction: Remember Bacon built conclusions from specific observations (inductive), whereas Hobbes applied general rules to specific cases (deductive).
- Error: Claiming the Royal Society was founded before Gresham College. Correction: Gresham College was founded in 1597, providing the early foundation that eventually led to the Royal Society in 1662.
- Error: Stating that these thinkers explicitly campaigned against witch trials. Correction: Acknowledge that while their philosophical frameworks undermined witchcraft beliefs, they rarely focused directly on debunking witches.