Planning and conducting research
This topic covers the essential processes involved in planning and conducting psychological research, including the formulation of aims and hypotheses, selection of participants, experimental design, operationalisation of variables, and the design of observations and self-reports.
Quick Revision Summary (Key Takeaway)
Planning and conducting research in OCR A-Level Psychology covers the research process from hypothesis formulation to data collection, including experimental design, sampling methods, ethical considerations, and data analysis. It is essential for evaluating studies and designing your own research, forming a core component of the 'Research Methods' topic.
Topic Overview
Planning and conducting research is a fundamental part of A-Level Psychology, as it equips students with the skills to design, carry out, and evaluate psychological investigations. This topic covers the entire research process, from formulating a research question and hypothesis, to selecting an appropriate experimental design, sampling method, and data collection technique. It also includes ethical considerations and the importance of reliability and validity.
In the OCR A-Level specification, this topic is assessed both in Paper 2 (Research Methods) and within other papers through questions on methodology. Understanding how to plan research is not only essential for exam questions but also for the practical investigation component, where students must demonstrate their ability to conduct a study. Mastery of this topic allows students to critically evaluate studies they encounter, identifying strengths and weaknesses in design and execution.
This topic connects to many areas of psychology, as all psychological theories are based on research evidence. By learning how research is planned and conducted, students can appreciate the scientific basis of psychology and the importance of rigorous methodology in drawing valid conclusions. It also develops critical thinking skills that are valuable beyond the classroom.
Key Concepts
Core ideas you must understand for this topic
- →Aims and hypotheses: distinguishing between a research aim and a directional/non-directional hypothesis.
- →Experimental designs: independent groups, repeated measures, and matched pairs, including their strengths and limitations.
- →Sampling methods: random, opportunity, volunteer, stratified, and systematic sampling, and how to evaluate them.
- →Ethical issues: informed consent, deception, debriefing, right to withdraw, confidentiality, and protection from harm.
- →Reliability and validity: internal/external reliability and validity, and how to assess and improve them.
What You Need to Demonstrate
Key skills and knowledge for this topic
- Formulation of research aims and questions
- Distinction between null and alternative hypotheses
- Distinction between one-tailed (directional) and two-tailed (non-directional) hypotheses
- Identification of target populations and sampling techniques (random, snowball, opportunity, self-selected)
- Application of experimental designs (repeated measures, independent measures, matched participants)
- Operationalisation of independent (IV) and dependent (DV) variables
- Control of extraneous variables
- Design of observations (behavioural categories, coding frames, time sampling, event sampling)
Marking Points
Key points examiners look for in your answers
- Formulation of research aims and questions
- Distinction between null and alternative hypotheses
- Distinction between one-tailed (directional) and two-tailed (non-directional) hypotheses
- Identification of target populations and sampling techniques (random, snowball, opportunity, self-selected)
- Application of experimental designs (repeated measures, independent measures, matched participants)
- Operationalisation of independent (IV) and dependent (DV) variables
- Control of extraneous variables
- Design of observations (behavioural categories, coding frames, time sampling, event sampling)
- Design of self-reports (open questions, closed questions, rating scales)
Examiner Tips
Expert advice for maximising your marks
- 💡Ensure you can justify the choice of sampling technique for a given scenario
- 💡Practice operationalising variables in various contexts to ensure they are measurable
- 💡Be prepared to critique research designs and suggest improvements
- 💡Use clear, precise psychological terminology when describing research procedures
- 💡When evaluating research methods, always use a structured approach: state the point, explain it, and provide a specific example or link to the study context.
- 💡For design questions, always justify your choice of experimental design with reference to the specific study, considering participant variables, order effects, and practical constraints.
- 💡Remember to include ethical considerations in your research plan, and explain how you would address them, not just list them.
Common Mistakes
Pitfalls to avoid in your exam answers
- Confusing directional and non-directional hypotheses
- Failing to operationalise variables clearly
- Misapplying experimental designs to specific research scenarios
- Confusing sampling techniques with experimental designs
- Misconception: A pilot study is the same as the actual study. Correction: A pilot study is a small-scale trial run to identify any issues with the procedure, materials, or instructions before the full study.
- Misconception: Random sampling means 'anyone can take part'. Correction: Random sampling involves selecting participants from a target population in a way that every member has an equal chance of being chosen, often using a random number generator.
- Misconception: A correlation proves causation. Correction: Correlations only show a relationship between variables; they do not establish cause and effect because there may be a third variable or the direction of causation is unclear.
Revision Plan
How to revise this topic in 1–2 weeks
- 1Week 1: Focus on the core concepts: aims, hypotheses, experimental designs, and sampling. Create flashcards for key terms and definitions.
- 2Week 2: Practice applying these concepts to exam-style questions, especially design and evaluation questions. Review ethical issues and reliability/validity.
- 3Week 3: Work through past paper questions under timed conditions, focusing on research methods scenarios. Use mark schemes to self-assess.
- 4Week 4: Revise any weak areas identified from practice, and create summary sheets for each design and sampling method.
Exam Question Types
How this topic typically appears in the exam
- 📋Short answer questions (e.g., 'Define the term 'independent groups design'') – answer concisely with a clear definition.
- 📋Design a study question (e.g., 'Design an experiment to investigate...') – include hypothesis, design, sampling, procedure, and ethical considerations.
- 📋Evaluation questions (e.g., 'Evaluate the use of a repeated measures design in this study') – use a point, evidence, explanation structure.
- 📋Data analysis questions (e.g., 'Calculate the mean and range from the data') – show your workings and include units.
Command Word Expectations (OCR)
What examiners look for when using specific command words in this specification
In OCR A-Level Psychology, 'evaluate' requires you to consider strengths and limitations of a concept, method, or study, and to come to a reasoned judgement. You should provide balanced points, supported with evidence or theory, and conclude with an overall assessment.
When asked to 'design' a study, you must provide a detailed plan including: aim, hypothesis (directional or non-directional), experimental design, sampling method, procedure (including materials and controls), ethical considerations, and data analysis. Ensure it is practical and clearly linked to the research question.
This requires you to give reasons or causes for a phenomenon, often using psychological theory or research. You should provide a clear, detailed account of why something occurs, not just describe it.
How Students Lose Marks (Examiner Pitfalls)
Common mark loss traps and how to write 100% full-mark answers
Step-by-Step Worked Solutions
Detailed solution breakdown for typical exam problems
Question: A researcher wants to investigate whether caffeine affects reaction time. They use a repeated measures design. 20 participants complete a reaction time task after drinking a caffeinated drink and after a placebo drink, with counterbalancing. The mean reaction time (in milliseconds) for the caffeine condition is 250ms (SD=30) and for the placebo condition is 270ms (SD=25). Calculate the difference in mean reaction times and explain what this suggests about the effect of caffeine.
- 1.Step 1: Identify the means for each condition: caffeine mean = 250ms, placebo mean = 270ms.
- 2.Step 2: Subtract the caffeine mean from the placebo mean: 270 - 250 = 20ms.
- 3.Step 3: Interpret: The mean reaction time was 20ms faster in the caffeine condition, suggesting caffeine may improve reaction time, but we need to consider variability (SD) and inferential statistics to determine significance.
Question: A student plans to conduct an observation study on aggression in a playground. They decide to use a structured observation with a coding scheme. Explain one strength and one limitation of using a structured observation in this context.
- 1.Step 1: Define structured observation: involves using predetermined categories to record behaviour.
- 2.Step 2: Strength: increases reliability because behaviours are clearly defined and can be replicated.
- 3.Step 3: Limitation: may lack validity as it might miss unexpected behaviours or be too rigid to capture the full complexity of aggression.
Active Recall Memory Test
Test your memory before revealing the key facts
Frequently Asked Questions
Common questions students ask about this topic
Before You Start
Prior knowledge that will help with this topic
- •Basic understanding of the scientific method and variables (IV, DV, extraneous).
- •Familiarity with descriptive statistics such as mean, median, mode, and standard deviation.
- •Knowledge of ethical guidelines in psychological research.
Likely Command Words
How questions on this topic are typically asked
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