History B Schools History Project GCSE

History B Schools History Project GCSE glossary

567 key terms for History B Schools History Project GCSE, A to Z, each linked to the topic pages that use it.

Find a term in History B Schools History Project GCSE

567 terms found. Open a term to try a short memory check.

A

Absolutists: Men who refused any war-related work and were often imprisoned and treated harshly.OCR
Accommodation: Conforming to Nazi rule to survive or maintain a normal life, often involving passive acceptance without ideological support.OCR
Administration and governance: He divided England into four great earldoms, Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia and Northumbria, to improve administration and respected English laws.OCR
Agricultural development: Tough Turkey Red wheat, brought by Russian immigrants, thrived in the arid conditions.OCR
Agricultural economics: The internal slave trade cemented slavery as the foundational economic institution of the southern states during this period.OCR
Althing: An assembly of chieftains that governed Icelandic society, making Iceland a unique republic independent of a monarch.OCR
Anglo-Saxon leadership: Gytha, King Harold's mother, led the city's defiance at Exeter, and Eadric the Wild led resistance in Mercia.OCR
Anglo-Saxon resistance: The final significant English opposition to Norman rule, represented by Hereward the Wake's rebellion in East Anglia.OCR
Anglo-Spanish conflict: John White returned to England for supplies but was delayed by the Spanish Armada, which delayed his return with vital supplies until 1590.OCR
Anglo-Spanish rivalry: The conflict of the 1580s and 1590s, in which adventurers challenged Spain's monopoly in the New World.OCR
Anti-imperialism: A growing minority view among British liberals and socialists who criticised the Raj, arguing it exploited Indian resources, caused poverty and suppressed…OCR
Archaeological evidence: Evidence from Coppergate reveals a densely populated town with timber-framed houses and bustling markets, shaping understanding of Viking urban life.OCR
Architecture and culture: Shah Jahan used architecture to project imperial power and religious devotion, transforming the empire's landscape through his patronage of building.OCR
armed pilgrimage: The appeal of this, alongside the remission of sins, was a religious motivation for joining.OCR
Artistic development: The shift under Jahangir from large historical scenes to highly detailed, realistic portraits and studies of nature, producing intimate, refined works.OCR
Assimilation and cultural destruction: The US government forced Native Americans onto reservations, restricting their movement to assimilate them into white agricultural practices.OCR
Asylum-seekers: People who have applied for sanctuary, generally not permitted to work in the UK while their claims are being processed.OCR
Atrocities and warfare violence: Brutal atrocities followed the capture, as the crusaders massacred the city's inhabitants, including Muslims and local Christians, showing extreme violence.OCR
Authority and control: The ruling classes, anxious about these upheavals, responded by passing harsher laws to maintain order and control a rapidly changing society.OCR
Authority and rebellion: The most severe offence was treason against the king, which carried the harshest penalties.OCR

B

barter: The way trade was conducted, with items like cacao beans and cotton cloaks sometimes used as a standard of value.OCR
Beliefs and treatments: Medical responses relied on the theory of the Four Humours, leading to treatments like bloodletting or purging, which were largely ineffective.OCR
Betrayal and espionage: Bohemond of Taranto secretly negotiated with Firouz, an Armenian guard on the city walls, who agreed to let the crusaders enter.OCR
Black Codes: Laws introduced by Southern states to control the labour and movement of freedmen.OCR
Bloody Code: The period when the number of crimes carrying the death penalty increased significantly, making capital offences out of minor property crimes.OCR
blót: Sacrifices to appease the gods and ensure successful harvests or victories.OCR
Bohemond of Taranto: Commander of the Crusader forces who marched out of the city on 28 June 1098 to face Kerbogha.OCR
Broken treaties and government policy: The Indian Wars resulted from this, together with white encroachment on Native American lands, and the violation of treaties was a primary cause of conflict.OCR
burhs: Large, fortified towns used by Anglo-Saxon England before 1066 to protect communities from Viking raids rather than as private castles.OCR
Byzantine-Western relations: Ties between the Byzantine Empire and the crusade leaders, marked by tensions that remained high and set the stage for future conflicts over captured cities…OCR

C

Castle building and control: Building a castle to secure the region, used alongside military response to establish permanent control.OCR
Causes of migration and expulsion: By the late 13th century Italian bankers provided alternative financial services, reducing the Crown's reliance on Jewish moneylenders, and in 1290 Edward I…OCR
Causes of poverty: Low wages, large families and old age, rather than idleness, as proved by Rowntree's research.OCR
Centralised government: A highly centralised and efficient system established by Akbar to govern his vast territories.OCR
ceorls: Free peasants, as distinct from unfree peasants who were legally tied to a lord.OCR
Changing attitudes to poverty: Victorian attitudes were challenged by findings that poverty was largely due to low wages, old age and large families, influencing the Liberal welfare reforms.OCR
Changing attitudes to punishment: Attitudes shifted from public retribution towards rehabilitation and incarceration, leading to the gradual abolition of capital punishment.OCR
Changing social attitudes: Shifts in how society views punishment, reflected in the abolition of formal public humiliation in the 19th century.OCR
chinampas: Artificial islands on Lake Texcoco that yielded multiple harvests of maize and beans annually to feed Tenochtitlan.OCR
Church hierarchy and royal control: The Pope was the spiritual head, but the English king controlled the appointment of bishops, and the Church was structured into dioceses managed by bishops,…OCR
Church wealth and land ownership: The Church owned about a quarter of the land, making it immensely wealthy.OCR
Civilian morale: The regime initially tried to maintain this by limiting rationing and consumer shortages, relying on plundered resources.OCR
Collaboration: Actively assisting the Nazis, such as local police forces helping to round up Jews or the Vichy regime in France.OCR
Community activism and resistance: Anti-racist movements emerged, leading to the Race Relations Acts of 1965, 1968, and 1976, which aimed to outlaw discrimination and promote equality.OCR
Community and settlement: Chinese sailors settled in areas like Limehouse, forming small but distinct neighbourhoods, and African sailors and freed enslaved people also built…OCR
Community law enforcement: Relied heavily on community action, with the traditional hue and cry and tithings remaining important and unpaid locals such as parish constables appointed to…OCR
Community responsibility: Without a centralised government bureaucracy or professional police force, maintaining order relied heavily on local communities.OCR
Community versus state involvement: Law enforcement shifted from community-based systems to professionalised, technology-driven policing funded by the state.OCR
concentration camps: Places initially run by the SA and later the SS that incarcerated political opponents and later targeted minority groups, using brutal forced labour to crush…OCR
Conflict: Humayun faced threats from his brothers and Afghan nobles, and Sher Shah Suri defeated him at Chausa and Kannauj.OCR
Conflict and diplomacy: Alfred's victory at the Battle of Edington in 878, followed by the Treaty of Wedmore recording Alfred's settlement with Guthrum.OCR
Conflict and displacement: The nature of this exploitation involved the displacement of Native Americans.OCR
Conflict and violence: Hostilities in Tenochtitlan that escalated when Cortés captured Emperor Moctezuma II and tensions erupted into violence following the Spanish massacre of…OCR
Conflict and warfare: The Indian Wars included Little Crow's War, Red Cloud's War and the Great Sioux War, which erupted after gold was discovered in the Black Hills.OCR
Conquest and consolidation of power: Cnut became King of England in 1016 after defeating Edmund Ironside, later gained the crown of Denmark in 1018 and secured Norway in 1028.OCR
Conquest and defeat: The three pivotal battles of 1066 determined the outcome of the succession crisis, with Harold's death at Hastings.OCR
Conquest and expansion: Babur invaded northern India, defeated Sultan Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 and the Rajput confederacy at Khanwa in 1527.OCR
Conquest and settlement: A coordinated campaign in England by the 'great heathen army', marking a shift from seasonal Viking raids.OCR
Conscientious objection: Refusing to fight on religious, moral, or political grounds, as some men did after the introduction of conscription in 1916.OCR
Conscription: Compulsory military service for eligible men, introduced in 1916 as the changing demands of a prolonged war necessitated a shift in policy.OCR
Consolidation of Norman power: Securing William's control over England after the surrender of the rebels effectively ended coordinated Anglo-Saxon opposition.OCR
Consolidation of power: The rapid process by which a one-party state was established and the Weimar Republic's democratic system was effectively ended within just six months.OCR
Constitutional change: The Parliament Act of 1911 removed the Lords' power to veto money bills and reduced their veto on other legislation to a two-year delay.OCR
Constitutional versus militant tactics: The WSPU adopted militancy in response to government delays, while the NUWSS remained constitutional, forming the Election Fighting Fund in 1912 to support…OCR
Continuity and change: Analysing how law enforcement and the judicial system evolved from c.1250 to the present day, tracing developments in policing and different types of court.OCR
Continuity and change over time: Punishment has transformed since c.1250, moving from public retribution to rehabilitation and incarceration, while prisons changed from holding facilities…OCR
Control and conformity: Teachers were forced to join the Nazi Teachers' League to ensure ideological conformity among educators.OCR
Court factionalism and rebellion: Her dominance sparked factionalism and rebellions, notably by Prince Khurram, who felt sidelined by her political manoeuvring.OCR
Coverture: The arrangement under which a wife's legal identity was subsumed by her husband.OCR
Cross-cultural conflict: The contrasting nature of Christian and Muslim warfare was shown when heavily armoured, slower-moving Crusader knights faced Seljuk Turkish mobile warfare.OCR
Cultural and artistic patronage: The impact of their rule included continued cultural patronage, particularly in miniature painting and architecture.OCR
Cultural assimilation: The Church established schools to educate the sons of the Indigenous elite, ensuring the next generation adopted Spanish cultural and religious norms.OCR
Cultural assimilation and blending: A small Viking elite assimilated rapidly into Frankish culture in Normandy, while the Hebrides saw a blending of Norse and Gaelic cultures.OCR
Cultural assimilation and religion: The population was culturally mixed, blending Norse and Anglo-Saxon traditions, evident in coinage and burial practices, with gradual adoption of Christianity…OCR
Cultural beliefs and scientific progress: Changing attitudes towards science, religion, and the role of the state, which influenced how people understood and responded to disease.OCR
Cultural contact: Vikings exchanged goods with the Islamic world, trading furs, amber and walrus ivory for silver, silk and spices.OCR
Cultural encounters: Arab diplomats such as Ibn Fadlan recorded detailed observations of Rus customs and burial rituals during his embassy to the Volga Bulgars.OCR
Cultural exchange: Babur brought Timurid culture to the Mughal court and adapted existing Persianate administrative traditions of the Delhi Sultanate.OCR
Cultural identity: Culture heavily influenced by Viking ancestry and French surroundings, resulting in a devoutly Catholic society.OCR
Cultural integration: Military service in the Varangian Guard provided immense wealth for returning veterans and fostered deep cultural ties between Scandinavia and the Byzantine…OCR
Cultural shifts in science and religion: Shifts from religious explanations of disease to the Scientific Revolution and later germ theory transformed medical understanding.OCR
Cultural sophistication: A rich and sophisticated culture before the Norman Conquest, contradicting the idea of a 'Dark Age'.OCR
Cultural synthesis: The blending of Persian, Indian, and European influences, including the use of perspective and halos, that gave the Mughal miniature a unique style.OCR
Cultural transformation: Latin replaced English in written government documents and the Norman elite spoke French, while the peasantry continued speaking English.OCR
Culture and court life: The court was characterised by extreme luxury, designed to project absolute power and divine right, exemplified by the Peacock Throne and elaborate court…OCR

D

Danelaw: The region in the north and east which retained distinct Scandinavian customs, laws, and social structures, contrasting with the south.OCR
Decolonisation: The end of empire, which prompted significant Commonwealth migration to Britain to fill post-war labour shortages.OCR
Democratisation and state power: Power shifted from medieval monarchs and feudal lords towards democratic parliamentary government and formal, state-funded law enforcement.OCR
Demographic change: The population was transformed through the emergence of mestizos, children of mixed Spanish and indigenous heritage.OCR
Demographic collapse: A catastrophic decline in the Indigenous population, caused by European diseases and harsh working conditions.OCR
Deterrence and retribution: The aim of the Bloody Code to deter crime through harsh retribution.OCR
Diet and nutrition: Diets depended on status: peasants ate pottage, dark bread and seasonal vegetables, while the wealthy consumed meat, white bread and wine.OCR
Diet, nutrition, and food safety: Adulterated food was a problem in the 19th century, and later safety regulations were introduced.OCR
Din-i-Ilahi: A new religion Akbar attempted to synthesise by blending elements of various faiths, though it attracted few followers.OCR
Diplomacy and communication: The initial encounters in early 1519 involved diplomacy and intelligence gathering, using a chain of translators including Gerónimo de Aguilar and La Malinche…OCR
Diplomacy and conflict: The Spanish were initially welcomed by Moctezuma II and housed in a royal palace, but the relationship between Cortés and Moctezuma was complex and tense, and…OCR
Diplomacy and negotiation: The process by which Alexios I managed large, independent armies by demanding an oath of vassalage and offering supplies, guides and military support in…OCR
Discrimination and inequality: These diverse groups faced severe hardship and discrimination, often relying on charitable lodging houses.OCR
Disease and infection: Beliefs about its cause included punishment from God, miasma (bad air) or astrological alignments, and responses were rooted in these medieval beliefs.OCR
Dismantling of democracy: The systematic removal of democratic opposition by banning trade unions and outlawing all rival political parties by July 1933.OCR
Diversity and social status: Free Africans lived in Britain working in various roles, challenging the misconception that all early Africans in Britain were enslaved.OCR
Diversity of migrant experiences: These groups highlight varied experiences, from state-sponsored persecution to cautious economic acceptance, illustrating the complex diversity of European…OCR
Domestic labour: The work of managing the household and assisting in family businesses or farms, expected of wives.OCR
DORA: Legislation passed in 1914 that granted sweeping powers to censor the press, control propaganda, requisition land and regulate everyday life.OCR
Dynastic ambition and leadership: Driven by a desire for wealth, revenge for the St Brice's Day massacre and political ambition, Svein's sudden death in 1014 paved the way for his son Cnut.OCR

E

earls: Powerful men who governed large earldoms like Wessex and supported the king.OCR
Early recruitment: Reliance on voluntary enlistment, driven by Lord Kitchener's poster campaign and patriotic appeals, before the introduction of conscription.OCR
East India Company: Received its royal charter from Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, marking England's first formal steps towards direct maritime trade contacts with India.OCR
East-West relations: Alexios appealed to Pope Urban II in 1095 for Western mercenaries, inadvertently sparking the First Crusade.OCR
Ecological devastation: Overgrazing by introduced animals caused severe soil erosion, which disrupted traditional indigenous agricultural practices.OCR
Economic administration: Castles functioned as administrative centres where local taxes were collected and stored, and where lords managed estates.OCR
Economic ambition: The 1587 expedition aimed to establish a permanent agricultural community by bringing families rather than just soldiers.OCR
Economic and social divergence: Southern states were convinced that their economic system and political influence were under threat.OCR
Economic change: The middling sort experienced growing wealth, while the poor faced increasing hardship due to population growth, inflation and poor harvests.OCR
Economic conditions: Towns acted as centres for trade and craft guilds, and life expectancy was low due to frequent famines and endemic diseases.OCR
Economic crisis and taxation: The prolonged Deccan campaigns had emptied the imperial treasury, leaving the state unable to pay soldiers or administrators.OCR
Economic dependence: Allocated land was often unsuitable for farming, causing dependence on inadequate government rations.OCR
Economic development and capitalism: Exploitation of the Plains was driven by economic opportunity, with infrastructure supporting the cattle industry's boom.OCR
Economic development and industrialisation: Britain transitioned from a rural, agrarian society in the medieval period to an industrial powerhouse by the 19th century, creating wealth but also severe…OCR
Economic development and trade: An agrarian economy with towns beginning to grow, fostering trade and guilds that attracted migrants seeking economic opportunities.OCR
Economic drivers of migration: Britain faced severe labour shortages, prompting the 1948 British Nationality Act, which granted Commonwealth citizens the right to live and work in the UK.OCR
Economic exchange: Trade was a primary motivator for early voyages, with extensive networks exchanging goods like furs, amber and walrus ivory for silver, silk and spices.OCR
Economic expansion: The growth of global trade networks, such as the founding of the East India Company in 1600, which secured lucrative spice trade routes.OCR
Economic exploitation: The socialist and radical liberal critique that British rule took Indian resources and caused widespread poverty in India.OCR
Economic exploitation and trade: The Spanish sought wealth, particularly gold and silver, to enrich the Crown and themselves, as well as new trade routes and resources.OCR
Economic hardship: Property offences rose during periods of hardship, and rates fluctuated based on economic and social conditions.OCR
Economic hardship and demographic change: Poverty was driven by population growth, inflation, bad harvests and the enclosure of farming land, which left many unemployed.OCR
Economic impact of migration: Valuable skills in silk weaving and finance brought by the Huguenots significantly boosted the British economy.OCR
Economic inequality: While industrialists amassed great wealth, many factory workers and immigrants faced low wages and poor living conditions.OCR
Economic migrants: People who move voluntarily for work, seeking employment in Britain.OCR
Economic migration: The growth in world trade created new economic opportunities that attracted merchants, sailors and economic migrants from across the globe.OCR
Economic migration and utility: Jews were initially invited to provide financial services and became essential moneylenders, generating wealth but also deep resentment.OCR
Economic mobilisation: The move to a war economy, with total war demanding stricter controls and a shift towards central planning.OCR
Economic opportunity: The chance to make money that drew thousands of prospectors to the gold rushes, though very few individual prospectors struck it rich and merchants often made…OCR
Economic prosperity: The Mughal economy was highly prosperous, driven by agriculture, manufacturing, and extensive trade networks.OCR
Economic systems: Tribute acted as a crucial economic engine, with conquered city-states paying regular taxes in goods that flowed to Tenochtitlan and sustained the empire.OCR
Economic tension: Migrants were often valued for their economic contributions by authorities but sometimes resented by local workers facing economic hardship.OCR
Economy: The region's fertile Indo-Gangetic plain supported a rich agrarian economy capable of generating substantial tax revenues.OCR
Economy and trade: The vast market at Tlatelolco showcased the empire's wealth, trading goods from across Mesoamerica.OCR
Elimination of rivals: The purge of the SA was necessary to win the support of the regular German army.OCR
Emancipation and liberation: The Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 shifted the war's aim to abolition, and enslaved people actively contributed to their own liberation.OCR
Emancipation and Reconstruction: The Civil War brought emancipation, and during Reconstruction the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments briefly granted citizenship and voting rights, enabling…OCR
Empire and trade: Global trade networks during the British Empire's expansion drove the growth of Indian, Chinese and African communities in Britain's port cities.OCR
Employment and domestic service: Free Africans worked in various roles including as sailors, musicians, and craftsmen, while ayahs and child servants worked in wealthy households.OCR
Employment and the economy: The regime focused on employment and military preparation for men, with rearmament creating millions of industrial jobs and significantly reducing unemployment.OCR
Employment patterns: The working class faced long hours in factories, mines, or domestic service, while the middle class included professionals like doctors and clerks who…OCR
Encomienda: A grant of Indigenous labour and tribute to Spanish colonists in exchange for protection and religious instruction.OCR
Enforcement of public health measures: Enforcement of measures to improve the urban environment remained inconsistent, and local efforts failed.OCR
Enslavement and forced migration: Planters forced hundreds of thousands of enslaved African Americans to migrate from the Upper South to the Deep South to meet labour demands.OCR
Environmental adaptation: Farming on the Plains required adaptation due to low rainfall, extreme temperatures and grasshopper plagues, with 'dry farming' techniques developed to…OCR
Environmental and geographical challenges: The arid Anatolian plateau offered little food or water, causing widespread starvation and dehydration.OCR
Environmental pollution: Industrial pollution was reduced by measures such as the 1956 Clean Air Act, though traffic and other pollutants remain concerns.OCR
Environmental public health: Pollution controls that became vital after the 1952 Great Smog of London, leading to the 1956 Clean Air Act.OCR
Environmental transformation: European grazing animals such as sheep, cattle and horses overgrazed native vegetation, leading to severe soil erosion and ecological devastation.OCR
Epidemic disease management: Local authorities appointed searchers, watchmen and scavengers to clean streets and isolate the sick, and banned public gatherings to limit contagion.OCR
Epidemics and pandemics: Public health crises such as the Spanish Influenza and AIDS, which both lacked a cure when they first emerged, making prevention the primary response.OCR
Erik the Red: The leader who colonised Greenland in the 980s CE, establishing settlements that relied on farming and hunting walrus for ivory.OCR
Escalation: The chronological movement from ghettos to mobile killings and finally to industrialised extermination camps.OCR
Escalation of persecution: A gradual process of radicalisation, starting with discrimination and segregation before escalating to mass murder during the Second World War.OCR
European expansion: The Portuguese first established trading posts, followed by the Dutch, English, and French, with 'factories' along the coast at Surat.OCR
Everyday survival: Everyday life revolved around the longhouse, where extended families lived alongside their livestock during harsh winters.OCR
Evidence and interpretation: The survival of intricate metalwork provides key archaeological evidence for artistic skills.OCR
Exploration and colonisation: England's attempt to establish an American colony at Roanoke Island occurred between 1585 and 1590, driven by Walter Raleigh.OCR
Exploration and navigation: Cortés launched his expedition to Mexico in February 1519, landing on the Yucatan Peninsula and reaching San Juan de Ulúa by April 1519.OCR

F

Factional rivalry: Competition among courtiers that intensified late in Elizabeth's reign, culminating in the 1601 rebellion of the Earl of Essex.OCR
Factionalism and nobility: Different factions of the nobility supported different brothers, and military strength and alliances proved more important than the emperor's chosen heir.OCR
Female political power and influence: Nur Jahan became the de facto co-ruler as Jahangir struggled with addiction and declining health, and was the only Mughal empress to have coins struck in her…OCR
feudal obligations: Harsh duties in Europe that peasants were often driven by a desire to escape.OCR
Feudal power: By controlling the surrounding landscape, the castle ensured that the local economy served the Norman lord, reinforcing the feudal system and extracting…OCR
Feudal society: Society structured around a feudal system, where land was held in exchange for military service.OCR
Financial pressures and taxation: Parliaments were called infrequently, primarily to grant taxes for wars against Spain.OCR
Flower Wars: Ritual battles fought specifically to take live prisoners for sacrifice to gods like Huitzilopochtli.OCR

G

Gender and marginalisation: Those accused were often poor, elderly women who were marginalised.OCR
Gender inequality: Societal expectations dictated that a woman's primary role was domestic, focusing on marriage and motherhood, and educational opportunities remained limited…OCR
Gender roles: Women held significant authority within the household, managing farms while men were away trading or raiding.OCR
Gender roles and expectations: Training was strictly segregated by gender, with boys prepared for military service and girls for domestic roles and childbearing.OCR
Gender roles and the family: Nazi ideology dictated a return to traditional domestic roles for women, encouraging marriage and childbirth through state loans and the Mother's Cross award.OCR
Geography: The fertile Indo-Gangetic plain of northern India supported a rich agrarian economy.OCR
Geography and environment: Migrants faced treacherous terrain like the Rocky Mountains, and the Mormons settled in the arid Great Salt Lake Valley in Utah.OCR
Geography and logistics: The geographical distance between Stamford Bridge and Hastings explains the exhaustion of the English army.OCR
Geography and warfare: The treacherous fenland terrain of the Isle of Ely, which Hereward utilised to wage a guerrilla campaign against William the Conqueror.OCR
Geopolitics and religious divisions: Deep political and religious divisions between the Sunni Seljuks and Shi'a Fatimids, which made the initial Muslim response fragmented.OCR
Gestapo: Secret state police that relied heavily on citizen informants to identify perceived enemies, creating a pervasive atmosphere of fear.OCR
Global conflict: World events such as wars, which drove refugee migration to Britain and shaped migration to Britain.OCR
Global trade and economics: English merchants sought to expand trade with the East to bypass the monopolies held by the Spanish, Portuguese, and Venetians.OCR
Global trade networks: The growth in world trade was driven by exploration and the establishment of overseas colonies, expanding commercial networks.OCR
Globalisation: One of the drivers of diversified migration to Britain since the 1980s.OCR
Governance and administration: The imperialist belief that British rule provided essential infrastructure and governance to India, with Indians seen as unready for self-governance.OCR
Government and public responses: The sheer volume of impoverished Palatines strained local resources, leading to a mixed reception and eventual resettlement of many to Ireland or the American…OCR
Government authority and order: The Liberal government's ability to maintain domestic order, severely tested by the militant challenge before the First World War.OCR
Government intervention: National plague orders issued by the Privy Council in 1578 mandated isolation for infected households and restricted the movement of people and goods.OCR
Government legislation: Parliament passed the 1667 Rebuilding of London Act, which local authorities had to implement, and the 1751 Gin Act increased taxes on gin and restricted its…OCR
Government legislation and local administration: The 1597 and 1601 Poor Laws established a national framework, introducing a compulsory poor rate collected by Overseers of the Poor to provide relief and…OCR
Government policy: The 1823 Gaols Act followed campaigns by reformers for better conditions, and later Victorian reforms introduced the separate system at Pentonville.OCR
Government policy and conflict: Most Native Americans were forced onto reservations through military campaigns, starvation, and broken treaties.OCR
Government reaction: The government responded to militancy with harsh measures like the Cat and Mouse Act.OCR
Government repression: Harsh measures including force-feeding hunger-striking suffragettes and the 1913 'Cat and Mouse Act', releasing starved prisoners only to rearrest them once…OCR

H

Hardship and morale: Over the winter of 1097 to 1098, the crusading army suffered severely from starvation, disease, and freezing conditions, leading to widespread desertions.OCR
Historical interpretations: Historical accounts differ over Moctezuma's death: Spanish sources claim he was killed by his own people's thrown stones, while indigenous accounts often…OCR
Holy Lance: A relic whose discovery by Peter Bartholomew miraculously restored Crusader morale from despair to religious zeal.OCR
Holy War: How the First Crusade was framed, channelling martial energy outwards and expanding the political and spiritual power of the papacy.OCR
Housing and overcrowding: Housing was basic in medieval times, and rapid urbanisation during the Industrial Revolution led to overcrowded back-to-back housing.OCR
Housing and sanitation: Housing has generally gained indoor plumbing and improved sanitation, although overcrowding and poor-quality housing persisted in some areas.OCR
Housing and shelter: Peasant housing typically consisted of cruck-framed wattle and daub huts with thatched roofs, open hearths and poor ventilation, often shared with animals.OCR

I

Ibadat Khana: Established at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575, this was where Akbar hosted debates among Islamic scholars and later invited Hindus, Jains, Christians and Zoroastrians.OCR
Ideological compromise: Female conscription and the full shift to Total War contradicted earlier Nazi ideology and belonged mainly to 1943–45.OCR
Immigration: Mass migration in which millions of immigrants arrived from Europe, driven by push factors like poverty and pull factors such as employment.OCR
Impact of disease: A smallpox outbreak decimated the population and killed key Aztec leaders, weakening their resistance.OCR
Impact on indigenous peoples: Both gold rushes brought severe consequences for indigenous peoples, including displacement, disease and violence, with the Californian rush decimating Native…OCR
Imperial administration: This grandeur reflected the centralisation of Aztec power and their ability to extract tribute from conquered territories.OCR
Imperial administration and stability: Her influence led to the promotion of her family members, such as her father, to high administrative posts, and their rule included the maintenance of…OCR
Imperial ambition: The motive driving Elizabethan adventurers to seek wealth, trade routes and national glory between 1580 and 1603.OCR
Imperial conquest: The Spanish strategy of capturing Moctezuma to rule Tenochtitlan indirectly and extract wealth, which suffered a devastating but temporary defeat when the…OCR
Imperial expansion and control: Achieved through military expansion and the Triple Alliance between Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan, which maintained military and political control over…OCR
Imperial finances and resources: Attempts to reclaim ancestral lands in Central Asia failed and drained the treasury.OCR
Imperial overstretch: The army was demoralised and overstretched, and the empire was too large to govern effectively with its depleted resources.OCR
Imperial patronage: Jahangir's passionate support of the arts, directing royal workshops and closely supervising artists, which significantly advanced the development of the…OCR
Imperial power: The Mughals maintained strict control over the terms of trade, viewing the Europeans as useful but minor economic partners rather than a political threat.OCR
Imperial tribute systems: The Aztec Empire demanded heavy tribute and sacrificial victims from its conquered subjects, creating deep-seated resentment among many indigenous groups.OCR
Imperialism: The view held by many British people, including Conservative politicians and officials like Lord Curzon, that British rule was a civilising mission bringing…OCR
Imperialism and colonialism: Growth of the British Empire, which facilitated global movement, bringing people from colonies to Britain for work, education and trade.OCR
Imperialism and empire building: The Spanish Crown sponsored expeditions to expand its empire and wealth across the region.OCR
Imperialism and global influence: A vast Empire covering roughly a quarter of the world's land provided raw materials and captive markets, fuelling British industry.OCR
Imperialism and global trade: The growth of global trade and the British Empire brought early African and Indian migrants to Britain.OCR
Imperialism and jingoism: Aggressive, patriotic support for the Empire that was widespread and celebrated in popular culture at the beginning of the twentieth century.OCR
Indian Removal Act: Legislation passed in 1830 that provided the legal framework to negotiate removal treaties.OCR
Indian Territory: The designated area west of the Mississippi River to which indigenous people from the eastern states were removed.OCR
Indigenous alliances: Groups such as the Totonacs and Tlaxcalans who allied with the Spanish, providing warriors, logistical support and safe haven essential to the campaign…OCR
Indigenous political structures: A loose hegemony rather than a tightly integrated state, in which conquered city-states kept their own local leaders under the Triple Alliance.OCR
Indigenous relations: The initial 1585 expedition struggled with hostile relations with the local Algonquian people.OCR
Indoctrination and propaganda: The Nazi regime sought to control young people through education and youth movements to ensure the future of the Thousand Year Reich.OCR
Industrial relations: The relationship between workers and employers, tested from 1910 to 1914 by severe unrest driven by militant labour.OCR
Industrialisation: Rapid industrialisation in late nineteenth-century America drove the growth of big business, with corporations dominating industries like steel and oil.OCR
Industrialisation and economic growth: British industry, particularly coal, steel and textiles, was fuelled by the imperial reach that provided raw materials and captive markets.OCR
Instability: By 1556 the empire was geographically limited, politically fragile and surrounded by hostile forces, leaving a deeply unstable inheritance for Akbar.OCR
Integration and conflict: Unofficial responses ranged from everyday integration to violent riots like Evil May Day.OCR
Integration and settlement: The Huguenots settled in areas like Spitalfields, London, while many Palatines were resettled to Ireland or the American colonies.OCR
Intelligence and espionage: Sir Francis Walsingham developed a sophisticated intelligence network whose agents intercepted correspondence, employed cryptanalysts to decipher coded…OCR
Inter-faith relations: Complex relations with Christians, including a history of tolerance towards Christian pilgrims in the Holy Land.OCR
Internal party purges: In the Night of the Long Knives in June 1934, Hitler purged the SA leadership and other political rivals.OCR
International relations: The threat of Catholic rebellion was closely tied to foreign powers, as English Catholics often looked to Spain and the Papacy for support.OCR
International trade: The empire exported textiles, spices, and indigo, attracting European traders, and European trade brought vast amounts of silver into the Mughal economy.OCR
Investiture Controversy: A clash between popes like Gregory VII and secular rulers over the right to appoint church officials, asserting papal supremacy.OCR

J

Jaguar and Eagle knights: Elite Aztec warriors who used weapons designed to injure and capture rather than kill outright.OCR
jizya: A specific tax levied only on non-Muslims, which Akbar abolished in 1564 to promote equality.OCR

K

Kerbogha of Mosul: Leader of a massive Muslim relief army that besieged the Crusaders inside Antioch after they breached its walls in June 1098.OCR
Kinship networks: Wider family connections that were crucial for social and economic support, providing patronage, employment and assistance during hardship.OCR
Ku Klux Klan: A white supremacist group that used violence and intimidation to suppress black political participation.OCR

L

L'Anse aux Meadows: The archaeological evidence for Viking presence in North America, a brief settlement established around 1000 CE that was quickly abandoned.OCR
Laissez-faire: The prevailing attitude of non-intervention, which government only abandoned later due to epidemics and political pressure.OCR
Land ownership and control: The survey recorded landholdings, livestock and resources, gathering evidence from local juries and settling land disputes after the redistribution of estates…OCR
Land ownership and the feudal system: William claimed all land in England and redistributed it to Norman followers in exchange for military service, so only a fraction remained in English hands.OCR
Latin Christendom: A deeply religious society in the late eleventh century where the papacy sought to consolidate its supreme authority.OCR
Law and local justice: The 1563 Witchcraft Act made invoking evil spirits a capital offence, and magistrates actively pursued convictions, using methods like searching for 'witch…OCR
Law and order: Areas around theatres in Southwark were associated with crime, prostitution, and disorder, which the London authorities opposed.OCR
Law enforcement: Before 1829 this relied on parish constables, watchmen and Bow Street Runners, and Robert Peel established the first professional, state-funded Metropolitan…OCR
Leadership: Humayun inherited the empire in 1530 but struggled to retain control, was forced into exile, and recaptured Delhi in 1555 before dying suddenly.OCR
Leadership and authority: Cortés soon took the Aztec emperor hostage to control the city through him, while Moctezuma's cooperative stance alienated his own people, who viewed him as…OCR
Leadership and cohesion: The prolonged siege tested the crusaders' resolve and military cohesion before the city finally fell.OCR
Leadership and command: Tactics focused on a two-pronged assault led by Godfrey of Bouillon and Raymond of Toulouse, with Godfrey's strategic overnight relocation of his siege tower…OCR
Leadership and cooperation: The Crusaders survived Dorylaeum through tight infantry formations and the timely arrival of reinforcements, demonstrating the resilience of their heavy…OCR
Leadership and decision-making: Harold Godwinson marched north rapidly and surprised the Viking forces, then rushed south to meet William.OCR
Leadership and governance: Godfrey of Bouillon was elected as the first ruler, taking the title 'Defender of the Holy Sepulchre' rather than king.OCR
Leadership and organisation: Brigham Young led the Mormons to Utah, where they developed complex irrigation systems, carefully planned their settlements, and established a highly…OCR
Leadership and rivalry: Disunity among the leadership began to fracture the expedition, with tensions flaring between commanders over strategy and the division of spoils.OCR
Leadership rivalries: Bitter disputes among the Crusade's leaders, as when Bohemond of Taranto claimed Antioch for himself and Raymond of Toulouse fiercely opposed him.OCR
Legacy and memory: His building works showed his desire to leave a lasting legacy of monumental scale.OCR
Legal continuity and innovation: William retained much of Edward the Confessor's legal system to legitimise his rule, but introduced the Murdrum fine and Forest Laws.OCR
Legal restrictions: Women lacked full property rights and were denied the parliamentary franchise.OCR
Legalised discrimination: The 1935 Nuremberg Laws, which institutionalised discrimination, stripping Jews of German citizenship and forbidding marriage or sexual relations between Jews…OCR
Legislation and government policy: Britain introduced restrictive legislation, including the 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act, in response to post-war pressures and concerns about immigration.OCR
Legislation and state control: Changes in law changed what counted as a crime, as new legislation created new categories of illegal acts.OCR
Legitimacy and oaths: William asserted that Harold had sworn an oath to support his claim to the throne.OCR
Leif Erikson: The explorer who travelled further west around 1000 CE and established a brief settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows in North America.OCR
Levant Company: Founded in 1581, it successfully traded with the Ottoman Empire for luxury goods like silk and spices.OCR
Lifestyle and diet: Regulation of behaviour in the modern era through the promotion of healthy lifestyles to combat modern issues like obesity.OCR
Lifestyle and physical activity: Modern work and leisure can involve less physical activity than earlier manual work, contributing to concerns about inactivity and health.OCR
Linguistic and archaeological evidence: Place names ending in '-by' and '-thorpe' evidence the profound linguistic impacts of extensive settlement in the English Danelaw.OCR
Living and working conditions: The upper class enjoyed lives of luxury, the middle class lived in comfortable suburban villas, and the working class faced long hours for low wages and…OCR
Living conditions: Monasteries often had superior systems due to their wealth, strict rules, and access to ancient texts, while rapidly growing towns struggled with waste…OCR
Living standards: Only the rich and the middling sort saw significant improvements, while the poor experienced severe economic hardship.OCR
Local government and civic pride: Local initiatives by councils and mayors, such as Joseph Chamberlain purchasing the Birmingham waterworks and clearing slums, which significantly improved…OCR
Local vs national authority: Local reactions varied, as some towns strictly enforced the orders while others struggled with enforcement due to a lack of funds or public resistance.OCR
Logistics and supply: Pack animals died in large numbers, forcing knights to ride oxen or walk, severely slowing their progress.OCR
Logistics and supply lines: The crusaders lacked sufficient siege equipment to breach the formidable city walls and struggled to maintain supply lines.OCR
Long-distance trade: Conflicts frequently concluded with lucrative commercial treaties, allowing the Rus to trade furs and enslaved people for Byzantine silk, wine, and gold.OCR

M

macuahuitl: A weapon used by Aztec warriors designed to injure and capture rather than kill outright.OCR
Maritime dominance: The iconic warships, or longships, were clinker-built with a shallow draft, allowing them to cross open oceans and navigate shallow rivers for surprise attacks.OCR
Maritime exploration: Seafaring was central to Viking culture, relying on sophisticated navigational skills using the sun, stars and coastal landmarks.OCR
Material culture and monumental architecture: The Jelling complex, with its runestones, burial mounds and church, illustrates the transition from paganism to Christianity.OCR
Mestizos: Children of mixed Spanish and indigenous heritage, a new social group arising as Spanish men formed relationships with indigenous women.OCR
Migration and settlement: Viking settlement in the British Isles and France varied significantly in nature and extent across England, Scotland, Ireland and France.OCR
Migration driven by empire: The expansion of the East India Company led to the arrival of Indian migrants, including ayahs and child servants.OCR
Miklagard: The Old Norse name for Constantinople, the Byzantine capital reached by the Rus via the Dnieper river route.OCR
Militancy vs constitutionalism: The Suffragists used peaceful, constitutional tactics, while the Suffragettes, frustrated by slow progress, adopted militant direct action, including window…OCR
Military allegiance: The army swore an oath of personal loyalty directly to Hitler, rather than to the state.OCR
Military architecture: The design of castles, primarily the motte and bailey, with a wooden keep on an artificial earth mound and an enclosed courtyard below.OCR
Military conflict: The Byzantine army was decisively defeated by the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071.OCR
Military conflict and alliance: Early encounters often involved aggressive sieges to plunder the wealthy metropolis, but by the late tenth century relations shifted towards military…OCR
Military conflict and strategy: They ignored Emperor Alexios I's advice to wait for the main crusader armies and were ambushed and massacred by the Seljuk Turks at Civetot.OCR
Military conquest: Aggressive military campaigns, including victories over wealthy regions like Gujarat and Bengal, that helped extend the Mughal Empire.OCR
Military conquest and strategy: Svein's campaigns were highly organised and destructive, and in 1013 his invasion shifted from raiding for wealth to a war of conquest.OCR
Military control: Castles provided safe bases for Norman garrisons to retreat to, launch cavalry patrols from and suppress English rebellions, acting as formidable deterrents…OCR
Military defence and survival: Defending against immediate threats, including decisively defeating a Fatimid counter-attack at the Battle of Ascalon in August 1099, which ensured the…OCR
Military dissent: Within the army, opposition culminated in the July Bomb Plot of 1944, led by Claus von Stauffenberg, aiming to assassinate Hitler.OCR
Military expansion: Significant military campaigns, particularly in the Deccan, expanded the empire but drained resources.OCR
Military expansion and conflict: Shah Jahan extended the empire through campaigns in the Deccan, absorbing Ahmadnagar and forcing Golconda and Bijapur to pay tribute, while attempts to…OCR
Military organisation and defence: It served a military purpose by identifying how many knights each tenant-in-chief could provide to counter the threat of a Danish invasion.OCR
Military service and discrimination: Over 180,000 African American men served in the Union Army, facing discrimination, lower pay, and the threat of enslavement or execution if captured.OCR
Military strategy: Tactics centred on the defensive shield wall, where overlapping shields created a strong barrier, and the offensive wedge formation, designed to break enemy…OCR
Military strategy and siege warfare: Preparations included a penitential barefoot march around the walls, and the vital construction of siege engines using timber from dismantled Genoese ships.OCR
Military strategy and tactics: The use of feigned retreats and a combination of archers, infantry, and cavalry by the Normans, contrasted with the English shield wall.OCR
Military strategy and technology: Babur used matchlock muskets, field artillery and the tulughma flanking cavalry tactic to defeat larger armies.OCR
Military tactics and technology: At Nicaea the Crusaders used traditional European siege tactics, including siege towers and blockades, while at Dorylaeum the Turks employed lightly armoured…OCR
Military technology and intimidation: Cortés demonstrated Spanish military superiority through displays of horses and artillery, and the initial interactions included Spanish displays of military…OCR
Military tribunals: The bodies before which conscientious objectors had to appear to justify their stance.OCR
Monarchy and succession: Harold Godwinson was swiftly crowned by the Witan after claiming Edward named him successor on his deathbed.OCR
Moral courage: Religious figures, such as Bishop Galen, publicly condemned the T4 euthanasia programme.OCR
Motivation and ambition: Baldwin of Boulogne and Tancred split from the main army to pursue personal territorial ambitions in Cilicia, highlighting how individual rivalries threatened…OCR
motte and bailey castle: Early Norman castle built quickly using earth and timber, with a raised mound topped with a keep and an enclosed courtyard below.OCR
Muslim disunity: Divisions and desertions among Kerbogha's allies, as many emirs deserted him, contributing to his defeat.OCR
Muslim political fragmentation: A fragmented political situation in the Levant which meant the Crusaders encountered little unified Muslim resistance on the journey south.OCR
Mutiny and leadership: Cortés's expedition was technically an act of mutiny, as Governor Velázquez had revoked his permission before departure, and Cortés defied the Governor of Cuba.OCR

N

National efficiency: Concern over the poor physical health and living conditions of the British population, which threatened imperial defence.OCR
Native American resistance: Red Cloud besieged US forts and forced the 1868 Fort Laramie Treaty, and the Sioux won a major tactical victory at the Little Bighorn in 1876.OCR
Nomadic lifestyle and environment: A way of life in which Plains Native Americans moved across the Plains, facilitated by horses, to follow buffalo herds.OCR
Norman control: Establishing immediate control over a hostile English population through rapid construction using local timber and earth.OCR
Norman control and authority: William replaced Anglo-Saxon bishops with Normans, notably appointing Lanfranc as Archbishop of Canterbury.OCR
Norman military strategy: A strategy of rapid military response combined with extensive castle building to suppress Anglo-Saxon defiance.OCR
Norman subjugation: Castles were built by the Normans to protect themselves from the English and to enforce their rule over the conquered people.OCR
Normanisation and cultural change: The Anglo-Saxon elite of earls and thegns were almost entirely replaced by a new Norman aristocracy, with tenants-in-chief receiving land.OCR
NUWSS: Provided organised relief during the war.OCR

O

Oaths and feudal obligations: The oath of vassalage Alexios demanded, requiring leaders to swear loyalty and promise to return any captured former Byzantine territories to him.OCR

P

Pals' battalions: Units where men from the same town or workplace enlisted and served together, such as the Accrington Pals.OCR
Papal authority: The supreme authority the papacy sought to consolidate in a deeply religious society, asserted by popes like Gregory VII over secular rulers.OCR
Papal authority and the power of the Church: The position of the Pope and the Church, which Urban II sought to assert in Europe through his preaching of the crusade.OCR
papal indulgence: A grant sought by participants to remit their sins and secure salvation.OCR
Patriarchy: A system in which husbands held legal and economic authority over their wives within the household.OCR
Patronage: System on which Elizabeth I's court was heavily reliant, used to distribute titles, monopolies and offices, ensuring loyalty and creating competition among…OCR
People's Court: Court that tried treason cases, ensuring the legal system served Nazi ideology.OCR
Persecution and marginalisation: Severe persecution, such as the 1530 Egyptians Act, aimed to expel Romany Gypsies, reflecting Tudor anxieties about vagrancy.OCR
Persecution and sanctuary: Britain acted as a sanctuary for refugees fleeing persecution, a prominent example being the Kindertransport before the Second World War.OCR
Persecution and tolerance: Harsher legislation against Catholics, including increased recusancy fines and treason for priests ordained abroad, alongside action against radical…OCR
Personal ambition and social mobility: Conquistadors were motivated by the prospect of individual glory, social advancement, and the acquisition of land and labour through the encomienda system.OCR
pochteca: Professional merchants who travelled beyond the empire to exchange goods for raw materials like cacao beans and quetzal feathers.OCR
Pogroms: Violent attacks that Eastern European Jews fled in the Russian Empire, particularly after 1881.OCR
Political campaigning: The note describes campaigns for the vote involving distinct groups, with the Suffragists using peaceful, constitutional tactics such as petitions and…OCR
Political change: As more men gained the vote through the Reform Acts, the government became more responsive to public demands for better policing and fairer laws.OCR
Political compromise and conflict: The Compromise of 1850 attempted to maintain this balance, but tensions escalated with the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854), which allowed popular sovereignty and…OCR
Political conflict: The Conservative-dominated House of Lords rejected the budget, breaking constitutional convention and sparking a major crisis that caused two general…OCR
Political disenfranchisement: Southern states applied literacy tests to disenfranchise Black voters politically, subverting the rights granted during Reconstruction.OCR
Political fragmentation: The state of the Islamic world being divided and not a single, unified entity in the late eleventh century.OCR
Political instability: The English Civil War and the execution of Charles I created periods of intense insecurity and fear of rebellion.OCR
Political instability and succession: Central authority was fatally weakened, leaving the empire highly vulnerable to fragmentation and imminent succession disputes.OCR
Political instability in Anglo-Saxon England: Svein exploited the weaknesses of King Aethelred the Unready, forcing him into exile and becoming the first Viking King of England.OCR
Political intimidation: The use of SA intimidation to secure the Enabling Act despite failing to win an absolute majority in the March elections.OCR
Political management and compromise: In the 1601 Golden Speech Elizabeth conceded on monopolies to maintain harmony.OCR
Political maneuvering and intrigue: Complex political backroom deals, notably involving Franz von Papen, resulted in Hitler's appointment as Chancellor.OCR
Political power and propaganda: The use of the Jelling stones to commemorate Harald's parents and his conquest of Denmark and Norway, serving as powerful political propaganda.OCR
Political radicalisation: The escalation of WSPU militant tactics, moving to widespread window smashing and arson, in response to Asquith's government repeatedly stalling the…OCR
Political reform: Significant political change, such as the 1832 Great Reform Act and later acts expanding the vote.OCR
Political reform and government intervention: The transition from monarchical power to a democratic system with universal suffrage, which meant governments became increasingly accountable for the welfare…OCR
Political rivalry and leadership disputes: Intense rivalries between crusader leaders, highlighted by Bohemond of Taranto securing a promise to rule Antioch if his plan succeeded, against Raymond of…OCR
Political stability: The aim the state sought by demanding outward conformity from all religious groups.OCR
Political transformation: A fundamental alteration of England's political and cultural landscape.OCR
polytheistic pagan religion: A religion centring on gods such as Odin, Thor, and Freyja, who represented war, weather, and fertility.OCR
Popular piety vs noble ambition: The contrast between the religious motivation of the ordinary Crusaders and the territorial ambitions of the princes.OCR
Poverty and desperation: Petty theft was the most frequent offence, often committed by desperate individuals during times of poor harvests or famine.OCR
Poverty and socio-economic tension: Economic hardship, poor harvests and rising poverty led to social tensions in villages, and vulnerable individuals were blamed for misfortunes like crop…OCR
Poverty and wealth: Poverty was driven by systemic economic factors like inflation, rising population and a series of bad harvests in the 1590s.OCR
Power: Humayun's authority was challenged by his brothers and Afghan rivals, and he returned through Kabul with Persian military assistance.OCR
Power and authority: A dangerous power vacuum was created by the death of Edward the Confessor in January 1066 without a direct heir.OCR
Power and control: Elites played vital roles in administration, the military and religion as judges, generals and priests, while commoners worked land allocated through the…OCR
Power, control and rebellion: Norman lords exercised tighter control, many free peasants were forced into serfdom tied to the lord's manor, and lands were stripped through rebellions and…OCR
Pre-Conquest Church corruption: Some clergy were criticised for practices like pluralism (holding multiple roles) and simony (selling Church positions), which later became pretexts for…OCR
Pre-Conquest England: Before the Norman Conquest, buildings were predominantly constructed from timber, such as large mead halls used for feasting and administration.OCR
Preparation for war: Physical Education was expanded to prepare boys for the military, and the Hitler Youth focused on military drills and weapons training.OCR
Preventative medicine: A proactive government approach in the modern era, shown by initiatives such as the Change4Life campaign and the 2018 sugar tax on soft drinks.OCR
Primary source evidence: Vast hoards of Arabic silver coins discovered across Scandinavia highlight the immense scale of this commerce.OCR
Privateering: Attacking enemy ships with official permission, letters of marque, from the Queen, unlike piracy.OCR
Privy Council: Elizabeth's main advisory body, which managed daily administration and policy, though she retained final authority.OCR
Professionalisation: Policing shifted from community systems like the hue and cry and unpaid parish constables towards professional forces, culminating in the 1829 Metropolitan…OCR
Professionalisation of policing: The establishment of the Metropolitan Police in 1829 marked a turning point towards professional, state-funded forces.OCR
Propaganda: Official material produced by the government, including posters and recruitment drives, used to support early recruitment and maintain control over the home…OCR
Propaganda and image: Elizabeth controlled her public image through authorised portraits depicting her as youthful and powerful, royal progresses and the cult of Gloriana.OCR
Propaganda and social control: Women were systematically removed from professional employment to free up jobs for men, while policies encouraged marriage and childbirth.OCR
Property and wealth: Offences against property rose during periods of hardship and urbanisation, and property and financial offences dominated in later centuries.OCR
Protection of property: The purpose of the Bloody Code in protecting the property of the wealthy.OCR
Public attitudes: Initially unpopular and viewed as a threat to liberty, the police were opposed by significant public opposition and fear of a military-style state apparatus.OCR
Public health and authority: Town authorities took action, with mayors and guilds introducing regulations to clean streets, restrict where butchers could slaughter animals, and fine those…OCR
Public health and disease: Large crowds at theatres increased the risk of spreading the plague, which was a concern of the London authorities.OCR
Public health campaigns: A coordinated national public health education strategy, such as the 1987 'Don't Die of Ignorance' campaign using television adverts and leaflets delivered to…OCR
Public health infrastructure: Joseph Bazalgette's London sewer system was built after the Great Stink of 1858, shifting the response to vital sanitary engineering.OCR
Public health policies: Organised civic measures such as isolation for infected households, marked by a cross on the door, and restrictions on the movement of people and goods.OCR
Public opinion: Support for the vote grew among working-class and middle-class women, as well as some male politicians, but opposition remained strong from groups like the…OCR
Public opinion and morality: Moral outrage and anti-imperialist sentiment fuelled by revelations regarding the appalling conditions in British concentration camps.OCR
Public opinion and propaganda: The government's use of force-feeding generated public sympathy for the suffragettes and condemnation of the authorities, while the cycle of repression and…OCR
Punishment and deterrence: Authorities sought alternatives to execution as the Bloody Code declined, and transportation to Australia began in 1787 to deter criminals and remove them…OCR
Puritans: A group who strongly opposed the theatre, believing plays were sinful and that cross-dressing actors and rowdy audiences were deeply unchristian.OCR
Purpose of punishment: The aim behind a method of punishment, shifting over time from deterrence and retribution to rehabilitation.OCR
Push and pull factors: The reasons that drove Italian and Eastern European Jewish migrants to Britain, such as rural poverty, political upheaval, religious persecution and violent…OCR

R

Racial ideology and anti-Semitism: The Nazi aim to create a 'pure' Aryan race, which categorised Jews as subhumans and a threat to the Aryan race.OCR
Radical political ideologies: Syndicalism advocated general strikes to gain workers' control of industry and drove the push for direct action among trade unionists.OCR
Ralph Fitch: In 1583 he travelled overland to India, providing valuable intelligence about the wealth of the Mughal Empire and Portuguese trade routes.OCR
Rebellion and resistance: The first uprisings against Norman rule, including resistance in the west and in Mercia, which demonstrated the fragility of Norman control.OCR
Rebellion of the Earl of Essex: Essex, having lost his monopoly on sweet wine and political influence, attempted to raise London against the Queen in 1601, and his failure and execution…OCR
Reconstruction: The period from 1865 to 1877 that aimed to rebuild the South and integrate formerly enslaved African Americans into society following the Civil War.OCR
Reform and prevention: The shift in focus away from retribution, towards which political change moved the justice system.OCR
Refugees: People who have had their claim for sanctuary accepted, having been forced to flee for their safety.OCR
Regional development: White planters aggressively expanded their operations into the Deep South, acquiring new lands in states like Alabama and Mississippi.OCR
Rehabilitation and reform: Reformers like John Howard and Elizabeth Fry campaigned for better conditions, leading to the 1823 Gaols Act, and later Victorian reforms reflected a shift…OCR
Rehabilitation versus retribution: Punishment moved from public retribution to rehabilitation, with modern prisons increasingly focusing on rehabilitation, education, and community-based…OCR
Relations with wider Europe: Conversion helped Harald secure alliances and protect Denmark from the powerful Holy Roman Empire, integrating Scandinavia into Christian Europe.OCR
Religion: The vast majority of the people were Hindu, while the pre-existing ruling elites were largely Muslim.OCR
Religion and belief: The Catholic Church held immense influence over daily life, education, and beliefs about health and disease, often attributing illness to divine punishment.OCR
Religion and conflict: The European Reformation divided Europe into Catholic and Protestant states and triggered widespread religious persecution and conflict.OCR
Religion and cultural imposition: Following the Reconquista, there was a strong desire to spread Catholicism and convert indigenous populations, viewing this as a divine mission.OCR
Religion and legitimacy: He patronised the Church to secure his legitimacy.OCR
Religion and morality: Puritans argued that plays were sinful, encouraged immorality, and distracted people from attending church and living a godly life.OCR
Religion and Puritanism: Puritan beliefs fuelled the hunt, viewing witchcraft as a pact with the Devil.OCR
Religion and society: Monasteries built elaborate water systems for religious purity and to avoid miasma, not because of germ theory.OCR
Religion and state power: At its heart lay the Sacred Precinct, dominated by the Templo Mayor, a massive pyramid dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc.OCR
Religion and superstition: Believing the plague was a punishment from God, many people took religious actions such as praying, fasting, and going on pilgrimages, and Flagellants whipped…OCR
Religion and the state: Church leaders provided opposition, with the Confessing Church resisting state control over Protestantism and Bishop Galen publicly condemning the T4…OCR
Religious and economic motivations: The readmission was driven by economic interests and religious beliefs.OCR
Religious authority: The Catholic Church influenced everyday life and held its own courts, shaping beliefs, morals, and the legal system.OCR
Religious beliefs: Polytheistic, centring on the belief that gods required constant nourishment to maintain cosmic balance.OCR
Religious conformity: Outward compliance with the established Church of England, which the state demanded from all religious groups to maintain political stability.OCR
Religious conversion: The Church's primary mission was the spiritual conquest of the Indigenous population, involving mass baptisms and the dismantling of traditional Aztec beliefs.OCR
Religious conversion and syncretism: The gradual process by which the Vikings adopted Christianity alongside their traditional Norse gods, blending old Norse beliefs with new Christian practices.OCR
Religious differences: Anti-Catholic sentiment faced by Irish migrants, who established their own cultural and religious institutions despite this hostility.OCR
Religious division: The split between the Sunni Seljuk Turks, who controlled Asia Minor, and the Shi'a Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt.OCR
Religious influence and authority: The pervasive influence of the Catholic Church, which dominated daily life and politics and acted as a unifying cultural force.OCR
Religious influence on law and daily life: Religion was central to daily life and governance, and it influenced law, with oaths sworn on holy relics.OCR
Religious motivation and the concept of holy war: The blending of religious fervour with the concept of a just war, framing the expedition as an act of devotion with a promise of remission of sins.OCR
Religious opposition and conformity: Puritans in parliament sought to strip the Church of England of Catholic practices, and Elizabeth refused to compromise her religious settlement.OCR
Religious persecution: Fleeing Catholic persecution in Europe drove Protestant refugees to Britain as a sanctuary during the 16th to 18th centuries.OCR
Religious persecution and prejudice: Animosity was fuelled by religious prejudice, such as the blood libel myth, and heavy royal taxation.OCR
Religious reform: Lanfranc reformed the Church by enforcing clerical celibacy, establishing Church courts, and rebuilding cathedrals in the Romanesque style.OCR
Religious tolerance: A policy that integrated diverse groups into the ruling apparatus, reflected in hosted religious and philosophical debates.OCR
Religious upheaval: The Reformation introduced severe religious instability as monarchs altered the national faith, turning previously accepted beliefs into treason or heresy.OCR
Religious zeal and motivation: Preparations included a penitential barefoot march around the walls to seek divine favour.OCR
Resistance: Ranged from armed uprisings, like the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, to non-violent acts such as resistance networks distributing leaflets or hiding Jewish people.OCR
Resistance and agency: Enslaved people in the South engaged in acts of resistance, such as slowing down work or fleeing to Union lines, weakening the Confederate war effort.OCR
Resistance and opposition: Opposition to the Nazi regime grew as the war progressed, encompassing various groups among the German people and elements within the army.OCR
Resistance and rebellion: The Tlaxcalans fiercely resisted Aztec domination and initially fought the Spanish before becoming Cortés's most valuable allies.OCR
Resource exploitation: Competition over land, gold and hunting grounds played a role in causing conflict, as when gold was discovered in the Black Hills and miners invaded the…OCR
Ritual and ceremony: Typically involved priests extracting the heart at the temple's summit.OCR
River navigation: Scandinavian merchants navigated the Volga river system to reach markets such as Baghdad and Bulgar.OCR
Role of government: Shifting government roles necessitated more formalised methods of law enforcement and judicial processes over time.OCR
Royal authority and administration: William the Conqueror commissioned the Domesday Book in 1085 and it was completed in 1086, using royal commissioners sent across England.OCR
Royal authority and legal status: Jews were legally the property of the Crown, which offered some protection but also allowed for severe exploitation.OCR
Royal authority and prerogative: Elizabeth retained ultimate authority, and MPs increasingly debated royal prerogatives such as monopolies.OCR
Rural vs urban life: Most people lived in villages and worked in agriculture, while towns were growing but remained small compared to modern standards.OCR

S

salvation: What participants sought to secure through the papal indulgence that remitted their sins.OCR
Sanitation and waste: Cesspits overflowed into courtyards and seeped into the water supply, while human and industrial waste was dumped directly into streets and rivers.OCR
Scientific discovery: Dr John Snow mapped cases around the Broad Street pump in Soho, London, demonstrating that cholera was waterborne.OCR
Segregation and civil rights: Southern states introduced Jim Crow laws to enforce social segregation, replacing the social control previously provided by slavery.OCR
Settlement patterns: Migrants settling in various regions, from London to East Anglia, with communities spread across Britain.OCR
sharecropping: Exploitative agreements that freedmen were often forced into, keeping many in debt.OCR
ship burials: Highly ritualistic burials for high-status individuals, with extensive grave goods to aid them in the next world.OCR
Skill transfer: Migrants bringing specific skills or trades, such as weaving, banking and brewing.OCR
Social and economic transformation: Significant population growth and economic shifts led to increased poverty, inflation, and the movement of people looking for work.OCR
Social and political organisation: A society organised into bands, with decisions made by councils rather than a single ruler.OCR
Social and religious tensions: Orthodox religious policies and constant warfare had alienated many Hindu subjects, sparking rebellions among the Rajputs, Sikhs, and Jats.OCR
Social attitudes: Later Victorian reforms aimed to break criminals' spirits and force reflection, reflecting a shift towards strict deterrence and rehabilitation.OCR
Social attitudes and discrimination: Migrants faced discrimination and racial tensions, reflecting a deeply divided society.OCR
Social attitudes and moral judgements: Elizabethans explained poverty through moral lenses, categorising the poor into the 'deserving' and the 'undeserving' or 'idle' poor.OCR
Social attitudes and stigma: The initial stigma associated with the AIDS epidemic, which contributed to a slow response before widespread public health campaigns were launched.OCR
Social class differences: Middle-class women were largely confined to the home, while working-class women endured long hours in poorly paid jobs alongside household duties.OCR
Social control: The Church enforced strict adherence to Catholic practices and secured long-term dominance by educating the Indigenous elite in Spanish norms.OCR
Social habits and health: The gin craze was a period of rampant alcohol abuse among the urban poor, and the 1751 Gin Act effectively reduced consumption.OCR
Social hierarchy: A system in which land ownership and tribute reinforced the power of the elites, whose hereditary status granted privileges forbidden to commoners.OCR
Social hierarchy and class: The social structure saw the Anglo-Saxon elite replaced by a Norman aristocracy, while below them free peasants declined and unfree villeins increased, making…OCR
Social hierarchy in warfare: Wealthier fighters wielded iron swords and wore chainmail, while elite warriors included berserkers, known for their frenzied fighting style.OCR
Social inequality and class divisions: Social inequalities and cultural shifts eventually forced government intervention in public health.OCR
Social inequality and class structure: British society was rigidly divided by class, dictating living conditions and occupations, with stark inequalities between the upper, middle and working…OCR
Social integration and prejudice: Severe anti-Catholic prejudice and accusations of undercutting wages, with religious and cultural tensions delaying assimilation.OCR
Social investigation: A pioneering study into the nature of poverty, such as the one conducted by Seebohm Rowntree in York, published in 1901.OCR
Social reform: Domestic political focus that critics argued was needed because imperial expansion was neglecting the welfare of the British working class.OCR
Social reform and welfare: Measures such as free school meals, pensions and National Insurance that tackled poverty between 1906 and 1914.OCR
Social structure: The feudal system structured society, with power concentrated in the hands of the monarchy, nobility, and the Catholic Church.OCR
Social structure and community: The social shift from a rural, agrarian population to an urbanised, industrial society, which weakened some informal community policing.OCR
Social structure and hierarchy: A rigid feudal hierarchy in which most people lived as peasants working the land for local lords.OCR
Social structure and urbanisation: Rapid population growth and urbanisation, which created new public health crises.OCR
Social transformation: The African American experience of the Civil War was transformative but fraught with hardship.OCR
Society: The people were highly diverse, with the vast majority Hindu and organised within a complex caste system, while pre-existing ruling elites were largely Muslim.OCR
Socio-economic causes of crime: Extreme poverty, unemployment, and the overcrowded conditions of new industrial slums largely drove the rise in property crime.OCR
Spiritual beliefs and sacred lands: Beliefs centred on the Great Spirit (Wakan Tanka) and the sacredness of the land, particularly the Black Hills.OCR
State control: Stricter controls and central planning marked the shift towards a war economy, particularly after 1942.OCR
State control and legislation: The use of laws such as the 1581 Act, the 1585 Act and the 1593 Act Against Seditious Sectaries to enforce the religious settlement.OCR
State policy and legislation: The 1530 Egyptians Act aimed to expel Romany Gypsies, while Jews were tacitly allowed to return without a formal readmission.OCR
State power and control: Reinforced both religious devotion and the political power of the Aztec state through intimidating public spectacle.OCR
State terror: Opposition remained fragmented and faced brutal suppression by the Gestapo, preventing a unified mass resistance movement.OCR
State terror and control: Opposition occurred despite the terror apparatus of the regime.OCR
State-building and consolidation of power: Establishing the Kingdom of Jerusalem to secure conquests, which required securing coastal ports for European supplies and defending against immediate threats.OCR
State-sponsored violence: Violent attacks such as Kristallnacht in November 1938, when Jewish businesses, homes and synagogues were destroyed and thousands of Jewish men were sent to…OCR
States' rights versus federal authority: Divisions were also deeply economic and political, focusing on states' rights and the balance of power in Congress.OCR
Strategic alliances: Mutual dependency in which Alexios needed the crusaders to reclaim land while the crusaders needed Byzantine supplies and logistical support.OCR
Strategic diplomacy: Forming alliances with powerful rivals, often cemented through marriage, to secure borders and integrate them into the state.OCR
Strategic geography: The highly strategic distribution of castles in vulnerable borders like the Welsh Marches, rebellious regions such as the North, and key transport routes like…OCR
Strategic negotiation: Bohemond used this strategy to secure a promise from the other crusader leaders that he would rule Antioch if his plan succeeded.OCR
Subjugation of the English: Placing castles in rebellious areas to intimidate the local population and suppress uprisings.OCR
Succession and dynastic struggle: When Shah Jahan fell ill in 1657, a brutal war of succession erupted among his four sons, with Aurangzeb defeating his brothers, executing Dara Shikoh and…OCR
Sulh-i-kul: Meaning 'universal peace', this concept promoted tolerance and was the foundation of Akbar's religious policies.OCR
Sweated trades: Work such as tailoring and shoemaking in which Jewish migrants in the East End of London worked long hours in poor conditions.OCR

T

Taxation and the economy: The primary purpose was to maximise tax revenue, the geld, by establishing exactly who owned what and its value.OCR
Taxation and wealth distribution: The 1909 People's Budget proposed higher taxes on the wealthy, including a super-tax, to fund the reforms.OCR
Technological advancement: Change that included the printing press, the Industrial Revolution's mass production and railways, and much later digital networks that changed how offences…OCR
Technological facilitation: Internet use enabled cyber-fraud and data theft, showing how methods of offending adapt to technology.OCR
Technological inequality: The Spanish possessed superior military technology, including steel swords, firearms and horses.OCR
Technological innovation: Advanced maritime technology, including longships with a shallow draft and clinker-built hull, powered by both sails and oars, facilitated Viking expansion.OCR
Technological progress: Technological advancements drove exploitation, and the Pacific Railroad Act spurred construction of transcontinental railroads.OCR
Territorial expansion: California was admitted as a state in 1850, and the Pikes Peak Gold Rush accelerated settlement on the Plains, bringing white settlers into lands previously…OCR
Territorial loss: The defeat at Manzikert led to the loss of Anatolia, a vital region for grain and military recruitment.OCR
The collapse of democracy: This moment marks the transition from the Weimar Republic to the Nazi dictatorship, as Hitler immediately began consolidating his power.OCR
The dominance of property crime: Property crimes, such as petty theft, burglary, and pickpocketing, made up the vast majority of offences in industrial Britain, while violent crime remained…OCR
The Enlightenment: A philosophical movement emphasising reason, which challenged the harsh physical punishments of the Bloody Code.OCR
The extraction of Danegeld and economic warfare: Svein extracted massive Danegeld payments to temporarily halt the raids, with increasingly large payments taken from the English.OCR
The impact of the Second World War: The outbreak of war in 1939 eventually forced the regime to reverse its policy and conscript women back into the industrial workforce.OCR
The impact of war and economic depression: The end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 contributed to the crime wave, as thousands of demobilised soldiers returned home to face economic depression and a…OCR
The justice system: A dual court system in which secular courts dealt with ordinary crimes ranging from petty theft to murder, while Church courts handled moral offences and the…OCR
The North Sea Empire: A vast Anglo-Scandinavian Empire, often called the North Sea Empire, which relied heavily on his personal authority and military strength.OCR
The poverty line: A measure based on minimum nutritional needs, calculated as the absolute minimum income required for basic physical efficiency.OCR
The power of the Church: Church courts operated independently, claiming jurisdiction over moral offences and any clergy member, often issuing more lenient punishments.OCR
The rise of dictatorship: Hitler immediately began consolidating his power, setting the stage for the rapid dismantling of democratic institutions in the months that followed.OCR
The role of conservative elites: Papen convinced Hindenburg that a coalition government with only a few Nazi ministers could be controlled by traditional conservatives.OCR
The role of local government: Justices of the Peace became increasingly powerful, judging cases in Quarter Sessions, while coroners investigated unnatural deaths.OCR
The role of the Byzantine Empire: Byzantine naval support was required to cut off the city's lake supply route at Nicaea.OCR
The role of the gentry: Wealthy landowners served as unpaid Justices of the Peace, administering the Poor Laws and enforcing religious uniformity in their counties.OCR
The succession crisis: The Throckmorton and Babington plots involved plans for foreign invasion and the Queen's assassination, including the intention to replace Elizabeth with…OCR
thegns: A class below the earls who held land in return for military service.OCR
Tlatelolco: The bustling central market that served as the economic hub where agricultural and crafted goods were exchanged.OCR
Trade and economy: Trade networks extended far beyond Britain, bringing luxury goods like silk and silver from the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic world, while exporting wool…OCR
Trade and urbanisation: In Ireland, Vikings established fortified coastal longphorts like Dublin, which evolved into major trading towns.OCR
Traditional warfare and bravery: Warfare involving counting coup to demonstrate bravery rather than causing mass casualties.OCR
Trail of Tears: The forced relocation of the Cherokee in 1838, where thousands died from exposure, disease, and starvation during the brutal winter march.OCR
Transportation: A new form of punishment introduced to remove criminals and provide labour in the colonies.OCR
Treason and rebellion: Catholic rebellion was closely tied to foreign powers, with English Catholics often looking to Spain and the Papacy for support and Mary, Queen of Scots…OCR
tribute: What Aztec territorial expansion was driven by the need to acquire, alongside captives for religious sacrifice.OCR
Tribute and economic exploitation: Conquered city-states retained local rulers provided they paid regular tribute, supplying luxury goods, food, and captives for sacrifice as the economic…OCR

U

Urbanisation: Rapidly growing towns struggled with waste disposal, though town authorities actively attempted to maintain public health based on the belief that miasma…OCR
Urbanisation and demographic change: Rapid urbanisation saw cities like London and Glasgow growing densely populated, creating stark contrasts between immense wealth and severe urban poverty.OCR
Urbanisation and infrastructure: Tenochtitlan was a bustling metropolis with a complex system of causeways, canals, and aqueducts supplying fresh water.OCR
Urbanisation and living conditions: Local and national governments took limited steps to improve the urban environment, such as widening streets and improving paving and scavenging.OCR
Urbanisation and population growth: The population exploded, driving rapid urbanisation, with towns growing from small medieval settlements into densely packed industrial cities, leading to…OCR
Urbanisation and port cities: These early communities were heavily concentrated in major port cities such as London, Liverpool, Cardiff and Bristol.OCR
Urbanisation and public health: Muck-rakers and gong-fermors were employed to manage waste, but rapid urban growth often outpaced these early public health efforts.OCR
Urbanisation and settlement: Jorvik became a densely populated town with timber-framed houses and bustling markets, transforming into a major international trading centre.OCR
Urbanisation and society: Population growth and urbanisation required more formalised methods of law enforcement and judicial processes.OCR

V

Valhalla: An afterlife destination for warriors chosen by Odin.OCR
Victorian fears of a 'criminal class': Public fear of a 'criminal class' was high, often sensationalised by the 'penny dreadful' press, and the anonymity of large cities made it easier for…OCR
Violence and brutality in the medieval period: The sack of the city was notoriously brutal, involving the widespread massacre of Muslim and Jewish inhabitants, justified as a necessary purification of the…OCR
Violence in society: Violent offences, including assault and murder, were surprisingly common, frequently erupting from sudden disputes or drunken brawls rather than premeditated…OCR
Voluntary Aid Detachments: Organisations that provided crucial nursing support during the First World War.OCR
Vulnerability and resistance: Deep resentment among conquered tributary peoples and independent enemies such as the Tlaxcalans, who resisted, made the empire vulnerable to internal…OCR

W

Waste management and public hygiene: In medieval times waste was often thrown into streets despite local regulations, and the Victorian sewer network and modern sanitation were later constructed.OCR
Water supply: Access to clean water was scarce, as people relied on shared standpipes that drew from polluted rivers.OCR
Water supply and sanitation: Water supply progressed from local wells and rivers to municipal reservoirs and piped clean water, and replacing 19th-century shared privies with 20th-century…OCR
Wealth and economy: Immense wealth funded an opulent lifestyle and military campaigns, placing a heavy financial burden on the peasantry through taxation.OCR
Wealth distribution: The upper class, comprising aristocracy and wealthy industrialists, owned vast estates, while the working class faced low wages and precarious employment.OCR
Westward expansion: As the United States expanded westward, the balance of power between free and slave states became highly contentious.OCR
Women's Land Army: A way for women to enter agriculture as men enlisted.OCR
Worcester v. Georgia: The Supreme Court case in 1832 in which the Cherokee Nation won, but which President Jackson ignored.OCR
Working-class living standards: The conditions of workers, who suffered falling real wages and rising living costs during the Great Unrest.OCR
WSPU: Suspended militant tactics to support the war effort.OCR

Y

Youth and education: Youth groups such as the Edelweiss Pirates and the Swing Youth rejected the conformity of the Hitler Youth.OCR

Where these terms come from

Each definition is one we publish on a History B Schools History Project GCSE topic page or study guide. Open a term to see how each exam board words it and which topic it belongs to. For the full course, go to History B Schools History Project revision or the glossary for every subject.

Revise History B Schools History Project with these terms

Create a free account to practise exam questions and get feedback on your answers.

Start free

A week of Premium from your first lesson · Then the free plan continues · No card, no charge

History B Schools History Project topics

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

R

S

T

U

V

W

Y

Where these terms come from

Revise History B Schools History Project with these terms

Cookies on MasteryMind