England, 1485–1603 – Instability and consolidation: 'the Mid-Tudor…

The idea

Mary I’s reign tested royal authority, beginning with her defeat of Lady Jane Grey, demonstrating support for the legitimate succession. However, her reliance on ministers like Stephen Gardiner and William Paget highlighted tensions in governance. The succession remained a persistent problem; Mary’s failure to produce an heir with Philip of Spain meant she reluctantly accepted Elizabeth as her successor. Relations with foreign powers were dominated by the Habsburg alliance through her marriage to Philip, drawing England into the Habsburg-Valois conflict. This culminated in the disastrous loss of Calais to France in 1558, severely damaging Mary's prestige and highlighting the subordination of English interests to Spanish foreign policy.

What earns the marks

• Evaluate the effectiveness of Mary's working relationship with her Privy Council, noting the factionalism between Gardiner and Paget.
• Assess the extent of royal authority, particularly how Mary asserted her legitimate claim to the throne against the Devise for the Succession.
• Analyse the succession crisis, focusing on the implications of Mary's phantom pregnancies and the eventual necessity of recognising Elizabeth.
• Examine the impact of the Spanish marriage on foreign relations, specifically how it dragged England into war with France and led to the loss of Calais.

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Claiming Mary had no control over her ministers.

  Put it right: Acknowledge that while her council was large and factional, Mary often made independent decisions, such as her marriage to Philip.

• Stating the loss of Calais was purely a military failure.

  Put it right: Explain that the loss was deeply tied to the unpopular Spanish marriage and the resulting diplomatic alignment with the Habsburgs.

• Assuming Mary easily accepted Elizabeth as her heir.

  Put it right: Recognise that Mary deeply resented Elizabeth's Protestantism and only formally acknowledged her succession days before her own death.

Exam tips

• When discussing royal authority, contrast Mary's initial triumph in 1553 with the later decline in her prestige following the loss of Calais.
• Use the marriage treaty of 1554 as concrete evidence when evaluating how Mary attempted to protect English interests from foreign domination.
• Link the problems of succession directly to foreign policy, showing how the lack of a Catholic heir doomed the Marian restoration.