England, 1485–1603 – Instability and consolidation: 'the Mid-Tudor…

The idea

Mary I’s reign saw significant social upheaval driven by religious and economic changes. Early religious shifts and xenophobia surrounding the Spanish marriage culminated in Wyatt’s Rebellion (1554). Later, the restoration of Catholicism, including the burning of nearly 300 heretics from 1555, created deep social divisions. Economically, severe harvest failures and the 1557–1558 influenza epidemics exacerbated poverty, though Mary initiated crucial financial reforms like the Book of Rates. Intellectually, Marian Catholicism was not merely reactionary; it featured humanist and religious thought led by Cardinal Pole, who promoted clerical education to reform the Church.

What earns the marks

• Assess the social impact of religious changes, including the Marian persecutions from 1555, noting how burnings affected public sympathy.
• Evaluate the economic changes and challenges, including the devastating impact of the 1557–1558 influenza epidemic and harvest failures.
• Analyse the causes of Wyatt's Rebellion (1554), weighing the relative importance of early religious discontent and opposition to the Spanish marriage.
• Examine intellectual developments and humanist and religious thought under Cardinal Pole, specifically his efforts to improve clerical education.

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Assuming Wyatt's Rebellion was caused by the Marian burnings.

  Put it right: Note the chronology; the rebellion occurred in early 1554, before the burnings began in 1555.

• Describing Marian religious policy as purely destructive.

  Put it right: Highlight the positive intellectual developments and humanist reforms initiated by Cardinal Pole.

• Blaming all economic hardship on Mary's policies.

  Put it right: Acknowledge that much of the economic distress was caused by external factors like consecutive harvest failures and the 1557–1558 influenza epidemic.

Exam tips

• When discussing economic changes, credit the Marian government for laying the groundwork for later Elizabethan financial stability, such as the new Book of Rates.
• Use Wyatt's Rebellion as a case study to link social and early religious grievances together in an essay on mid-Tudor instability.
• Challenge the traditional Foxe's Book of Martyrs narrative by incorporating evidence of Catholic humanist thought and administrative reform.