Reality and illusion, 1945–1980 – Eisenhower: tranquility and crisis,…

The idea

During Eisenhower’s presidency, US foreign policy was defined by the 'New Look', emphasising nuclear deterrence to manage superpower rivalry with the USSR. In Europe, the USA responded to the 1956 Hungarian Uprising with rhetoric but no military intervention, revealing the limits of 'rollback', while integrating West Germany into NATO to strengthen Western Europe. In Asia, the USA reacted to the rise of Communism by ending the Korean War in 1953, supporting Taiwan during the Taiwan Strait Crises, and backing South Vietnam after the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu. In the Middle East, Eisenhower responded to the 1956 Suez Crisis by forcing British and French withdrawal, subsequently issuing the Eisenhower Doctrine to counter Soviet influence in the region.

What earns the marks

• Assess the effectiveness of Eisenhower's 'New Look' policy and massive retaliation in managing superpower rivalry with the USSR.
• Evaluate the US response to Eastern European developments, specifically the inaction during the 1956 Hungarian Uprising despite 'rollback' rhetoric.
• Analyse US reactions to Asian Communism, including the armistice in Korea (1953) and the creation of SEATO (1954).
• Examine the US response to Middle Eastern crises, focusing on the Suez Crisis (1956) and the implementation of the Eisenhower Doctrine (1957).

Common mistakes and how to put them right

• Claiming Eisenhower actively used military force to roll back Communism in Eastern Europe.

  Put it right: Acknowledge that despite Dulles's rhetoric of 'rollback', the USA did not intervene militarily in the 1956 Hungarian Uprising.

• Confusing the Truman Doctrine with the Eisenhower Doctrine.

  Put it right: Specify that the Eisenhower Doctrine (1957) specifically targeted the Middle East to prevent Soviet expansion following the Suez Crisis.

• Assuming the USA supported its European allies during the Suez Crisis.

  Put it right: Note that Eisenhower strongly opposed the Anglo-French-Israeli invasion of Egypt and used financial pressure to force their withdrawal.

Exam tips

• Link Eisenhower's reliance on nuclear deterrence (massive retaliation) to his desire to balance the federal budget and reduce conventional military spending.
• Contrast the aggressive rhetoric of Secretary of State John Foster Dulles with Eisenhower's generally cautious and pragmatic actions in international crises.
• Use the 1954 Geneva Accords and the subsequent US backing of Ngo Dinh Diem in South Vietnam as key evidence of the USA's reaction to Communism in Asia.