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    2O Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945 – The Collapse of Democracy, 1928–1933 — AQA A-Level History

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    The collapse of Weimar democracy between 1928 and 1933 stemmed from structural economic vulnerability triggered by the Wall Street Crash, systemic political paralysis, and backroom intrigue by conservative elites. These converging crises enabled Adolf Hitler and the NSDAP to transform from an electoral fringe into Germany's dominant political force, culminating in Hitler's appointment as Chancellor in January 1933.

    2O Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945 – The Collapse of Democracy, 1928–1933 explained

    2O Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945 – The Collapse of Democracy, 1928–1933 covers 4 specification points, including Elections; governments and policies and The appeal of Nazism and Communism; the….

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    Open a point below for its explanation and revision guidance.

    The economic, social and political impact of the Depression: elections; governments and policies

    The Great Depression devastated Weimar Germany, triggering profound economic, social, and political crises. Economically, the withdrawal of US loans caused mass bankruptcies and unemployment, peaking at six million by 1932. Socially, this created widespread destitution and a psychological loss of faith in the Republic. Politically, the crisis shattered the Grand Coalition in 1930 over unemployment benefit policies. Subsequent governments under Brüning, Papen, and Schleicher relied on Article 48, ruling by presidential decree. Brüning’s deflationary policies, such as wage cuts, worsened the misery. Consequently, elections between 1930 and 1932 saw a dramatic polarisation, with voters abandoning moderate parties for extremists.

    The appeal of Nazism and Communism; the tactics and fortunes of the extremist parties, including the role of propaganda

    The Depression fuelled the fortunes of extremist parties, as the KPD and NSDAP offered radical solutions. The appeal of Communism lay in its promise of a workers' state, attracting millions of unemployed labourers. KPD tactics included street violence and rent strikes. Conversely, the appeal of Nazism spanned broader demographics, promising national renewal and anti-Marxism. Nazi tactics combined the SA's physical intimidation with sophisticated propaganda orchestrated by Goebbels. This propaganda utilised mass rallies, targeted posters, and modern technology to project Hitler as Germany's saviour, ultimately making the NSDAP the largest Reichstag party by 1932, contrasting with the KPD's more limited electoral ceiling.

    Hindenburg, Papen, Schleicher and the 'backstairs intrigue' leading to Hitler’s appointment as chancellor

    Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933 resulted from complex 'backstairs intrigue' among conservative elites rather than direct electoral victory. President Hindenburg, who initially despised Hitler, was persuaded by Franz von Papen to appoint him. Papen, seeking revenge after being ousted by Kurt von Schleicher, believed he could control Hitler within a conservative cabinet, famously claiming they would 'push him into a corner'. Schleicher’s own chancellorship had collapsed after he alienated both the left and right, failing to split the Nazi party. This fatal political manoeuvring by Hindenburg, Papen, and Schleicher handed power to the Nazis, demonstrating how traditional elites drastically underestimated Hitler.

    Political developments: the Reichstag Fire; parties and elections; the Enabling Act and the end of democracy; the state of Germany by March 1933

    Between January and March 1933, the Weimar Republic was rapidly dismantled. The Reichstag Fire on 27 February provided Hitler with a pretext to issue an emergency decree suspending civil liberties and suppressing communist opponents. In the March 1933 elections, despite widespread intimidation of rival parties, the Nazis failed to secure an absolute majority, winning 43.9 percent. To bypass parliament, Hitler secured the Enabling Act on 23 March, requiring a two-thirds majority. By intimidating the SPD and negotiating with the Centre Party, the Act passed, legally ending democracy. By late March 1933, the state of Germany had transformed into a legal dictatorship, with opposition neutralised and totalitarian foundations laid.

    Your focus

    1. Describe the economic and social consequences of the Great Depression on different demographic groups in Germany.
    2. Explain how the economic crisis led to the collapse of parliamentary government and the rise of presidential decree.
    3. Analyse the relationship between government economic policies and the results of the Reichstag elections from 1930 to 1932.
    Show all 12 objectives
    1. Identify the core ideological appeals of both the KPD and the NSDAP to the German electorate during the Depression.
    2. Analyse the methods and effectiveness of Nazi propaganda in mobilising mass support across different demographic groups.
    3. Evaluate how the tactics of street violence and intimidation contributed to the rising fortunes of extremist parties at the expense of the democratic centre.
    4. Analyse the specific roles of Hindenburg, Papen, and Schleicher in the political crisis of 1932 to 1933.
    5. Evaluate the motivations behind the 'backstairs intrigue' that led to the conservative alliance with the Nazi Party.
    6. Explain how the traditional German elites fatally miscalculated their ability to control Adolf Hitler.
    7. Explain the political impact of the Reichstag Fire on civil liberties and the suppression of political opposition.
    8. Analyse the results of the March 1933 elections and the tactics used by the Nazi party against other political parties.
    9. Evaluate how the Enabling Act facilitated the end of democracy and transformed the political state of Germany by March 1933.

    2O Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945 – The Collapse of Democracy, 1928–1933 exam tips

    Topic Overview

    The collapse of the Weimar Republic between 1928 and 1933 represents one of the most critical turning points in modern European history. This topic traces Germany's rapid descent from the relative stability and cultural vibrancy of the Stresemann era into deep socio-economic turmoil, constitutional paralysis, and totalitarian dictatorship. It investigates the structural vulnerabilities of the Weimar constitution, the devastating shockwave of the Wall Street Crash, the polarisation of the electorate, and the political machinations that ultimately installed Adolf Hitler as Chancellor on 30 January 1933.

    Understanding this transition is essential for comprehending how advanced, constitutionally robust democracies can decay under acute economic distress and institutional subversion. Within AQA A-Level Component 2O, this unit bridges the study of Weimar's fragile foundations and golden years with the subsequent establishment and consolidation of the Third Reich, equipping students to assess the relative significance of long-term structural failures versus short-term human agency.

    Key Concepts
    • →Constitutional Flaws and Article 48: The structural vulnerability of the Weimar Constitution, specifically how the misuse of emergency presidential decrees under Article 48 bypassed parliamentary democracy from March 1930 onwards.
    • →Economic Destabilisation: The impact of the 1929 Wall Street Crash on an economy heavily dependent on short-term US loans under the Dawes Plan (1924), leading to banking collapses, deflation, and mass unemployment peaking at 6.1 million in 1932.
    • →Electoral Polarisation and the 'Catch-All' Party: The collapse of the moderate political centre (DDP, DVP) and the surge of radical extremes (KPD and NSDAP), alongside the NSDAP's emergence as a broad-based Volkspartei appealing across class divisions through tailored propaganda.
    • →The Backroom Intrigue (Camarilla): The crucial role played by non-democratic conservative elites surrounding President von Hindenburg—specifically Franz von Papen, Kurt von Schleicher, and Otto Meissner—in orchestrating Hitler's appointment as Chancellor.
    Marking Points
    • Identify the economic consequences of the Wall Street Crash on Germany, specifically the recall of short-term American loans and the resulting surge in unemployment.
    • Explain the social impact of the Depression, including the rise in poverty, the strain on the welfare system, and the radicalisation of the working and middle classes.
    • Analyse the political paralysis caused by the collapse of Müller's Grand Coalition and the subsequent reliance on Hindenburg's presidential decrees under Article 48.
    • Evaluate the failure of government policies, particularly Brüning's deflationary measures, in addressing the economic crisis and their role in alienating the electorate.
    • Assess the significance of the 1930 and 1932 Reichstag elections in demonstrating the collapse of the moderate democratic centre and the surge in extremist support.
    • Analyse the specific appeal of the KPD to the unemployed and working classes, focusing on their promise to overthrow capitalism and establish a Soviet-style state.
    • Evaluate the broad-based appeal of the NSDAP, noting their ability to attract the Mittelstand, farmers, and nationalists through promises of economic recovery and anti-communism.
    • Assess the tactics used by extremist parties, including the deliberate use of paramilitary violence by the SA and the Rotfrontkämpferbund to dominate the streets and project strength.
    • Examine the role of Nazi propaganda, directed by Joseph Goebbels, in tailoring specific messages to different social groups while maintaining a unifying cult of the Führer.
    • Compare the electoral fortunes of the KPD and NSDAP between 1928 and 1932, explaining why the Nazis achieved a mass breakthrough while the KPD's support remained concentrated.
    • Explain Papen's motivation to ally with Hitler to regain power and exact revenge on Schleicher.
    • Analyse Schleicher's failure to maintain a stable government, specifically his unsuccessful attempt to split the Nazi party using Gregor Strasser.
    • Evaluate Hindenburg's role and his transition from refusing Hitler the chancellorship in August 1932 to conceding in January 1933.
    • Assess the miscalculation of the conservative elites who believed they could 'tame' Hitler by limiting Nazi cabinet positions to just three.
    • Analyse how the Reichstag Fire Decree legally suspended civil liberties and allowed the Nazis to decimate the KPD before the March elections.
    • Evaluate the significance of the March 1933 election results, noting that the Nazis still required nationalist coalition partners to form a majority.
    • Explain the political manoeuvring and intimidation tactics used to secure the two-thirds majority required to pass the Enabling Act.
    • Assess the state of Germany by the end of March 1933, focusing on the transition from a fragile democracy to a legalised dictatorship.
    Examiner Tips
    • 💡Link economic statistics directly to political shifts; use the unemployment figure of six million in 1932 to explain the electoral breakthroughs of the KPD and NSDAP.
    • 💡When discussing government policies, contrast the inaction or deflationary measures of Brüning with the desperate need for state intervention demanded by the electorate.
    • 💡Use the collapse of Müller's government in 1930 as the definitive turning point marking the end of parliamentary democracy and the beginning of presidential rule.
    • 💡Contrast the rigid, class-based appeal of the KPD with the flexible, catch-all nature of Nazi propaganda to explain the difference in their ultimate electoral fortunes.
    • 💡Use specific examples of Nazi propaganda techniques, such as the 'Hitler over Germany' flight campaign of 1932, to demonstrate their modern and dynamic tactics.
    • 💡Discuss how the fear of Communism (the 'Red Threat') directly boosted the appeal of Nazism among middle-class and elite voters who sought a strong bulwark against a Bolshevik revolution.
    • 💡Use the phrase 'backstairs intrigue' to explicitly address the role of elite political manoeuvring in the collapse of Weimar democracy.
    • 💡Contrast the electoral decline of the Nazis in November 1932 with their political triumph in January 1933 to highlight the importance of elite collusion.
    • 💡When evaluating the reasons for Hitler's appointment, weigh the importance of conservative miscalculations against the broader context of the Great Depression.
    • 💡Link the Reichstag Fire directly to the March election results to demonstrate how crisis was manipulated for electoral advantage.
    • 💡Highlight the role of the Centre Party in passing the Enabling Act to show how non-Nazi parties contributed to the end of democracy.
    • 💡Use the phrase 'pseudo-legal revolution' to describe the state of Germany by March 1933, emphasising how Hitler used the constitution to destroy it.
    • 💡Always differentiate clearly between the chancellorships of Hermann Muller (1928–30), Heinrich Bruning (1930–32), Franz von Papen (1932), and Kurt von Schleicher (1932–33), referencing their distinct policies and relationships with the Reichstag.
    • 💡Integrate precise historiographical debates into your evaluative essays, such as the tension between structuralist interpretations (long-term socio-economic crises) and intentionalist/determinist views (the agency of conservative elites and Hitler's leadership).
    • 💡Ensure that when evaluating the impact of the Wall Street Crash, you explicitly explain the mechanism of transmission: the recall of US short-term loans under the Dawes Plan, resulting in credit contraction and industrial collapse.
    Common Mistakes
    • Error: Claiming the Wall Street Crash was the sole cause of Germany's economic problems. Correction: Acknowledge that the German economy was already stagnating before 1929 and was structurally dependent on short-term foreign loans.
    • Error: Stating that Brüning deliberately caused the Depression to end reparations. Correction: Explain that while Brüning used the crisis to argue against reparations, his deflationary policies were primarily driven by a fear of repeating the hyperinflation of 1923.
    • Error: Assuming the working class universally abandoned the SPD for the Nazis. Correction: Note that the unemployed working class largely shifted towards the KPD, while the Nazis drew heavily from the lower-middle class and rural voters.
    • Error: Stating that Nazi propaganda was the sole reason for their electoral success. Correction: Emphasise that propaganda was effective because it exploited existing underlying grievances caused by the Depression and the failures of the Weimar Republic.
    • Error: Treating the KPD and SPD as a united left-wing front against fascism. Correction: Highlight the bitter division between the KPD and SPD, noting that the KPD labelled the SPD as 'social fascists', which fatally divided the working-class resistance to Nazism.
    • Error: Assuming the Nazis hid their anti-Semitism entirely during elections. Correction: Clarify that while anti-Semitism was downplayed in favour of economic messages in some areas, it remained a core component of their propaganda, particularly when scapegoating minorities for Germany's crises.
    • Error: Claiming Hitler was elected Chancellor by a popular vote. Correction: Clarify that Hitler was appointed by President Hindenburg under Article 53 of the Weimar Constitution, following backroom deals, not a direct public election.
    • Error: Stating Hindenburg eagerly supported Hitler's appointment. Correction: Emphasise that Hindenburg disliked Hitler, calling him the 'Bohemian corporal', and only appointed him when other options were exhausted.
    • Error: Confusing the chronological order of Chancellors. Correction: Ensure the correct sequence is maintained: Heinrich Brüning, Franz von Papen, Kurt von Schleicher, then Adolf Hitler.
    • Error: Stating the Nazis won a majority in the March 1933 election. Correction: Specify that the Nazis won 43.9 percent of the vote and relied on the DNVP to achieve a working majority.
    • Error: Confusing the Reichstag Fire Decree with the Enabling Act. Correction: Distinguish that the Decree suspended civil liberties, whereas the Enabling Act allowed Hitler to pass laws without the Reichstag.
    • Error: Claiming the Enabling Act was passed illegally. Correction: Explain that the Act was passed using constitutional mechanisms, albeit under severe intimidation and the exclusion of Communist deputies.
    • Hitler seized power through a violent putsch or was elected with an absolute majority: In reality, Hitler was appointed legally through constitutional channels by President Hindenburg via backroom negotiations after Nazi electoral support had actually declined in November 1932.
    • The Great Depression alone destroyed Weimar democracy: Economic misery created profound social discontent, but political democracy had already fractured in March 1930 when Hermann Muller's Grand Coalition collapsed and Bruning began ruling by decree, long before the peak of unemployment.
    • The German working class uniformly turned to the Nazi Party: Industrial workers largely remained loyal to the SPD or turned to the KPD; the core of early Nazi electoral gains derived from the rural Protestant Mittelstand, small shopkeepers, civil servants, and disillusioned agrarian communities.
    Revision Plan
    1. 1Day 1-3: Timeline Construction & Economic Analysis: Map out key events from May 1928 to January 1933; examine the direct financial and social consequences of the October 1929 Wall Street Crash.
    2. 2Day 4-6: Political Disintegration & The Presidential Governments: Contrast Muller's Grand Coalition collapse with the decree-based rule of Bruning, Papen's 'Cabinet of Barons' and the Preussenschlag, and Schleicher's brief tenure.
    3. 3Day 7-9: Nazi Appeal & Electoral Dynamics: Analyse election results from 1928, 1930, July 1932, and November 1932; evaluate Goebbels' propaganda techniques and the cross-class demographic base of the NSDAP.
    4. 4Day 10-12: The Backroom Intrigue: Deconstruct the specific actions of Hindenburg, Papen, Oskar von Hindenburg, and Meissner between December 1932 and 30 January 1933.
    5. 5Day 13-14: Essay Planning & Timed Writing: Complete full-length essays on the relative weight of elite intrigue vs economic crisis using past AQA exam questions.
    Exam Question Types
    • 📋Compulsory Question 1 (Source Evaluation): Analysis of three contemporary extracts regarding the causes of democratic collapse or the appeal of Nazism, requiring evaluation of content, provenance, and historical context.
    • 📋25-Mark Evaluative Essay: Broad thematic essays demanding sustained analytical balance (e.g., 'The collapse of Weimar democracy was primarily the result of the Wall Street Crash. Assess the validity of this view.').
    • 📋Comparative Factor Essay: Questions requiring direct ranking of distinct factors (e.g., comparing the significance of the fear of Communism against Nazi propaganda in Hitler's rise to power).
    Command Word Expectations (AQA)
    Assess the validity of the view

    Requires a sustained, analytical argument that explores both sides of a given proposition, evaluates the strength of evidence throughout, and reaches a fully justified, nuanced historical conclusion.

    With reference to these extracts and your understanding of the historical context, which of these two/three extracts provides the more convincing interpretation

    Demands critical deconstruction of historical interpretations, evaluating arguments against precise contextual knowledge and assessing provenance and tone to determine relative historical validity.

    How Students Lose Marks (Examiner Pitfalls)
    Pitfall: Attributing the collapse of Weimar democracy entirely to the Wall Street Crash without evaluating long-term constitutional flaws and the agency of conservative elites.
    ❌ Weak Answer (Loses Marks):Democracy collapsed because the Great Depression made everyone poor and unemployed, so the German people voted for Hitler because he promised them jobs and bread.
    Example improved answer:While the Great Depression acted as a primary catalyst by creating mass unemployment of over 6 million by 1932, it did not make the demise of democracy inevitable. Rather, the economic catastrophe exposed pre-existing structural weaknesses in the Weimar constitution, notably Article 48, which Heinrich Bruning used from March 1930 to govern via presidential decree, effectively bypassing the Reichstag. Furthermore, democratic collapse was directly facilitated by conservative elites—including Franz von Papen, Kurt von Schleicher, and President Paul von Hindenburg—who actively subverted parliamentary democracy in an attempt to co-opt Hitler's mass electoral movement to entrench an authoritarian regime.
    Examiner Tip: Always balance economic determinism against political agency and constitutional structures. Distinguish clearly between the conditions that broadened Nazi appeal and the specific political decisions that handed Hitler power.
    Pitfall: Treating the Nazi electoral breakthrough as an absolute majority rather than a pluralistic surge that peaked in July 1932 and subsequently declined.
    ❌ Weak Answer (Loses Marks):In 1932, the German people voted overwhelmingly to make Hitler Chancellor because the Nazis won an outright majority in the Reichstag elections.
    Example improved answer:The NSDAP never attained an absolute majority in a free election under the Weimar Republic. While their vote surged dramatically from 2.6% in 1928 to 37.3% in July 1932 (230 seats), making them the largest party, their support receded to 33.1% (196 seats) in the November 1932 election. This electoral decline demonstrated that Nazi electoral momentum was stalling; Hitler was ultimately appointed Chancellor in January 1933 not through an outright democratic mandate, but via an elite intrigue orchestrated by Franz von Papen and the Camarilla surrounding President Hindenburg.
    Examiner Tip: Quote precise election statistics (e.g., July 1932 vs November 1932) to demonstrate chronological nuance and avoid assertions that Hitler was democratically elected as dictator.
    Step-by-Step Worked Solutions

    Question: Assess the validity of the view that the collapse of Weimar democracy between 1928 and 1933 was primarily due to the political ambitions of conservative elites.

    1. 1.Step 1: Define the core debate and establish criteria. The prompt pits the role of conservative elites (Hindenburg, Papen, Schleicher, agrarian elites) against alternative factors such as economic catastrophe (the Great Depression) and Nazi campaigning/electoral appeal.
    2. 2.Step 2: Analyse the role of conservative elites. Assess how Bruning's appointment in March 1930 marked the end of true parliamentary governance through reliance on Article 48. Detail how Papen's 'Cabinet of Barons' destroyed Prussian regional democracy (Preussenschlag, July 1932) and how Papen persuaded Hindenburg in January 1933 that Hitler could be 'pushed into a corner' with only two other Nazis in cabinet.
    3. 3.Step 3: Evaluate counter-arguments. Analyse the impact of the Wall Street Crash (October 1929), mass unemployment (1 in 3 workers jobless by 1932), the collapse of the Grand Coalition over unemployment insurance in March 1930, and the NSDAP's broad cross-class 'catch-all' (Volkspartei) electoral strategy led by Goebbels.
    4. 4.Step 4: Formulate a nuanced, comparative judgement. Conclude that while economic crisis and Nazi propaganda generated the systemic shock and mass constituency, conservative elites were the crucial catalyst: their deliberate decision to dismantle democracy and use Hitler to construct an anti-Bolshevik, authoritarian state directly delivered power to the NSDAP.
    Final Answer: The view is largely valid. Economic ruin and Nazi electoral dynamism created the conditions of crisis, but democracy did not collapse organically through democratic defeat. It was deliberately dismantled from above by conservative elites who sought to exploit Hitler's mass base to install an authoritarian regime, miscalculating their ability to control him.

    Question: With reference to Source extracts on the rise of the NSDAP between 1928 and 1932, explain how students should evaluate the provenance and historical value of an extract from a KPD (Communist Party) newspaper in 1931.

    1. 1.Step 1: Identify the provenance attributes: Author (KPD editorial board), Date (1931, during the height of the Great Depression and Bruning's austerity decrees), Purpose (propaganda, ideological mobilising, attacking the SPD and capitalist state).
    2. 2.Step 2: Contextualise the content within historical reality. In 1931, the KPD pursued the Comintern-mandated 'social fascism' line, treating the SPD as the primary enemy rather than coordinating an anti-fascist front with moderate social democrats.
    3. 3.Step 3: Evaluate the value and limitations. The source has exceptional value for demonstrating the extreme polarisation of German politics, the alienation of working-class left-wing voters from the Weimar system, and the fatal division on the Left that prevented a united stand against Nazism. Its limitation lies in its distorted ideological lens, underestimating the specific threat of the NSDAP while hyper-focusing on the SPD.
    Final Answer: The source holds high historical value for illustrating the ideological dogmatism and fractured state of the German Left under the 'social fascism' doctrine, directly explaining why parliamentary coalitions broke down and left the Republic exposed to radical extremes.
    Active Recall Memory Test
    What percentage of the vote and how many Reichstag seats did the NSDAP win in the May 1928 election compared to the July 1932 election?
    Key Fact: In May 1928, the NSDAP won 2.6% of the vote (12 seats); in July 1932, they surged to 37.3% of the vote (230 seats).
    What constitutional mechanism allowed Heinrich Bruning to pass legislation without Reichstag approval from March 1930?
    Key Fact: Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution, which empowered the President to issue emergency decrees.
    What was the Preussenschlag of July 1932 and who executed it?
    Key Fact: Chancellor Franz von Papen dismissed the legitimate SPD-led coalition state government of Prussia and appointed himself Reich Commissioner, destroying regional democratic resistance.
    Why did Franz von Papen convince President Hindenburg to appoint Hitler Chancellor in January 1933?
    Key Fact: Papen sought revenge against Kurt von Schleicher and believed he could 'frame' and control Hitler in a cabinet where Nazis held only three of twelve posts, with Papen as Vice-Chancellor.
    Frequently Asked Questions
    Did Hitler win a democratic majority to become Chancellor in 1933?
    No, Hitler was never elected to power by an outright democratic majority. In the last free election before his appointment (November 1932), the Nazi Party won 33.1% of the vote, losing 34 seats and over two million votes compared to July 1932. Hitler was appointed Chancellor on 30 January 1933 via a backroom constitutional deal brokered by Franz von Papen and conservative elites around President Paul von Hindenburg.
    Why is Heinrich Bruning referred to as the 'Hunger Chancellor'?
    Heinrich Bruning earned this title due to his rigorous policy of economic deflation between 1930 and 1932. Rather than expanding spending to create employment, Bruning implemented deep public spending cuts, reduced civil service salaries, increased taxes, and lowered unemployment benefits. He pursued this partly to balance the budget and partly to demonstrate to the international community that Germany could not afford to pay further war reparations.
    What role did the fear of Communism play in the collapse of democracy?
    The fear of Communism was a decisive catalyst that alienated middle-class Germans and business elites from democracy. As the Communist Party (KPD) steadily increased its vote share and street presence via the Red Front Fighters' League, industrialists, landowners, and the Mittelstand increasingly viewed the Weimar Republic as too weak to protect private property. This profound anti-Marxist paranoia made the violent, orderly rhetoric of the NSDAP and the SA attractive as a bulwark against violent revolution.
    How did the Wall Street Crash directly affect the German banking system?
    Under the 1924 Dawes Plan, Germany had financed its industrial recovery and welfare state through short-term, callable loans from American financial institutions. When the New York stock market crashed in October 1929, American banks abruptly recalled these short-term credits to cover their domestic losses. This precipitated a major liquidity crisis, culminating in the collapse of major financial institutions like the Danatbank in July 1931, driving widespread business bankruptcies and massive unemployment.
    Why did the German Left fail to unite against the rise of Hitler?
    The Left was bitterly divided between the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and the German Communist Party (KPD). Their mutual hatred dated back to the 1919 Spartacist Uprising, which the SPD government had crushed using the right-wing Freikorps. Furthermore, between 1928 and 1934, the KPD adhered to the Comintern doctrine of 'social fascism', which branded moderate social democrats as the primary enemy of the proletariat, preventing any unified resistance against the NSDAP.

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