Paper 3, Option 35.2: The British experience of warfare, c1790–1918 - 2 The Crimean War, 1854–56 — Edexcel A-Level History
Verified courseTeaching note checked against the official specification.
Paper 3, Option 35.2: The British experience of warfare, c1790–1918 - 2 The Crimean War, 1854–56 explained
Paper 3, Option 35.2: The British experience of warfare, c1790–1918 - 2 The Crimean War, 1854–56 covers 3 specification points, including The impact of the battles of Alma and… and The problems of medical care; the work of….
Read the full explanation
Open a point below for its explanation and revision guidance.
Facing the Russian threat in the Crimea: the impact of the battles of Alma and Balaclava and the siege of Sebastopol; the role of Lord Raglan.
The Crimean War pitted Britain, France and Turkey against Russia. After the Allies landed in September 1854, they marched south to engage Russian forces at the Alma. The battle, fought on 20 September, was a costly frontal assault that nevertheless opened the way to Sebastopol. The siege of Sebastopol became a prolonged trench war, with the Allies bombarding the city while the Russians defended it. The battle of Balaclava on 25 October saw the Thin Red Line and the Charge of the Light Brigade, exposing command failures. Lord Raglan, the British commander, was criticised for unclear orders and for not coordinating effectively with allies. His role is assessed through his decisions at Alma, Balaclava and during the siege, and the impact of these events on the war's outcome.
The problems of medical care; the work of Florence Nightingale and Mary Seacole in the Crimea.
Medical care in the Crimea was initially chaotic: hospitals were overcrowded, supplies were inadequate, and diseases such as cholera, dysentery and typhus killed far more soldiers than battle wounds. Florence Nightingale arrived at Scutari in November 1854 with a team of nurses, improving sanitation, nutrition and organisation, and reducing mortality. Mary Seacole, a Creole businesswoman, travelled independently to the Crimea, setting up the British Hotel near Balaclava to provide food, comfort and nursing to soldiers. Both women faced opposition and prejudice, but their work highlighted the need for reform. Their contributions are assessed in terms of their impact on soldiers' welfare and on the development of nursing.
Changing attitudes of the public in Britain to the conduct of the war, including the impact of the photography of Roger Fenton and the reportage of William Russell.
This topic examines how public opinion in Britain shifted during the Crimean War, focusing on the roles of William Russell's reporting and Roger Fenton's photography. Early war enthusiasm gave way to criticism as reports exposed logistical failures, poor medical care and command incompetence. Russell's dispatches for The Times described the harsh conditions of soldiers and the suffering at Scutari, shaping a narrative of mismanagement that contributed to the fall of Aberdeen's government in January 1855. Fenton's photographs, taken later under official patronage from March 1855, presented a more controlled view, often omitting dead bodies and emphasising order and heroism. Together, these media influenced public attitudes. Students should assess how each source shaped opinion, considering limitations such as censorship, technology and the timing of publication.
Your focus
- Describe the key events of the battles of Alma and Balaclava and the siege of Sebastopol.
- Analyse the impact of these events on the course and outcome of the Crimean War.
- Evaluate the role of Lord Raglan as commander of British forces in the Crimea.
Show all 9 objectives
- Identify the main problems of medical care in the Crimean War.
- Explain the contributions of Florence Nightingale and Mary Seacole to improving soldiers' welfare.
- Evaluate the significance and limitations of their work in the context of the Crimean War.
- Analyse how William Russell's reportage influenced public attitudes towards the conduct of the Crimean War.
- Evaluate the impact of Roger Fenton's photography on British public perceptions of the war.
- Compare the effectiveness of written and visual media in shaping public opinion during the Crimean War.
Paper 3, Option 35.2: The British experience of warfare, c1790–1918 - 2 The Crimean War, 1854–56 exam tips
Marking Points
- Explain the strategic context: Russia's threat to the Ottoman Empire and the need to protect the route to India, leading to the Allied invasion of the Crimea.
- Describe the battle of Alma (20 September 1854): the Allied assault on Russian positions on the Alma heights, the role of Raglan in ordering the attack, and the immediate impact of the victory in opening the road to Sebastopol.
- Analyse the battle of Balaclava (25 October 1854): the Russian attack on the Allied supply base, the Thin Red Line, the Charge of the Heavy Brigade, and the disastrous Charge of the Light Brigade; assess the impact on morale and on perceptions of British command.
- Evaluate the siege of Sebastopol: the prolonged bombardment, the trench warfare, the battles of Inkerman and Tchernaya, and the eventual fall of the city in September 1855; consider the impact of the siege on the British army and on the war's conclusion.
- Assess the role of Lord Raglan: his leadership at Alma, his ambiguous orders at Balaclava that led to the Light Brigade charge, his handling of the siege, and his death in June 1855; weigh his strengths and weaknesses as a commander.
- Discuss the overall impact of these events on the British experience of warfare: the exposure of logistical and medical failures, the changing public perception of war, and the legacy for military reform.
- Explain the problems of medical care: inadequate hospitals, shortage of supplies, poor sanitation, and the prevalence of disease; the failure of the Commissariat and medical services to cope with the number of casualties.
- Describe Florence Nightingale's work: her arrival at Scutari with nurses, her emphasis on sanitation and hygiene, her use of statistics to demonstrate the link between dirt and disease, and her role in improving the hospital environment.
- Analyse the impact of Nightingale's work: the reduction in mortality rates at Scutari, her establishment of a nursing school after the war, and her influence on army medical reform.
- Describe Mary Seacole's work: her independent journey to the Crimea, the establishment of the British Hotel, her provision of food, clothing and nursing care to soldiers, and her presence at the front.
- Assess the significance of Seacole's work: her popularity among soldiers, her difficulties in gaining recognition from the authorities, and her later memoir 'Wonderful Adventures of Mrs Seacole in Many Lands'.
- Compare and contrast the contributions of Nightingale and Seacole: their different backgrounds, approaches, and the extent to which they were recognised officially; consider the limitations of their impact given the scale of the problems.
- Explains how William Russell's reportage for The Times exposed deficiencies in supplies, medical care and leadership, thereby altering public perception from support to criticism.
- Analyses the impact of Roger Fenton's photographs in shaping a sanitised or heroic image of the war, and how this contrasted with written reports.
- Evaluates the extent to which public attitudes changed, considering factors such as censorship, the role of other media and the timing of information reaching Britain.
- Uses specific examples, such as Russell's description of the hospital at Scutari or Fenton's images of camp life, to support arguments about changing attitudes.
- Assesses the limitations of each source, including Fenton's official commission and the delay in publishing photographs, when judging their impact on the public.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Use precise dates and locations to show secure knowledge, e.g. Alma (20 September 1854), Balaclava (25 October 1854), Sebastopol (siege from October 1854 to September 1855).
- 💡When assessing impact, consider short-term military outcomes and longer-term consequences such as public opinion and army reform.
- 💡For questions on Lord Raglan, balance his experience and bravery against his failures in communication and coordination with allies.
- 💡Incorporate contemporary evidence, such as reports by William Howard Russell, to support arguments about impact and perception.
- 💡Use specific examples of Nightingale's reforms, such as the introduction of clean linen, better diets and ventilation, to show depth of knowledge.
- 💡For Seacole, refer to her own writings and contemporary accounts to illustrate her impact and the obstacles she overcame.
- 💡When discussing problems of medical care, link them to broader logistical failures of the British army in the Crimea.
- 💡In comparative questions, avoid simply listing achievements; instead, analyse the relative significance and limitations of each woman's work.
- 💡When analysing sources, explicitly link their content to changes in public attitudes, using contemporary context such as the role of The Times.
- 💡Compare and contrast the impact of photography and reportage, noting differences in immediacy, emotional appeal and official control.
Common Mistakes
- Confusing the battles of Alma and Balaclava: Alma was a frontal assault on Russian heights, while Balaclava involved the defence of the Allied base and the famous cavalry charges. Correction: clearly distinguish the location, date and nature of each battle.
- Overstating the impact of the Charge of the Light Brigade as a decisive military event: it was a costly blunder but not strategically decisive. Correction: place it in context as a symptom of command failures rather than a turning point.
- Attributing the fall of Sebastopol solely to British efforts: the French played a major role, and the siege was a combined operation. Correction: acknowledge the Allied nature of the campaign and the Russian defence.
- Ignoring the role of Lord Raglan beyond Balaclava: his decisions at Alma and during the siege were also significant. Correction: cover his overall command, not just the Light Brigade episode.
- Claiming that Florence Nightingale single-handedly reduced mortality: the Sanitary Commission also played a major role. Correction: acknowledge the wider efforts and the timing of the mortality decline.
- Assuming Mary Seacole was a nurse in the same official capacity as Nightingale: she was not part of the official nursing contingent and operated independently. Correction: describe her role accurately as a sutler and nurse.
- Overlooking the continued high death rates from disease even after Nightingale's arrival: conditions improved but disease remained a major killer. Correction: avoid exaggerating the speed and extent of improvement.
- Ignoring the prejudice and obstacles both women faced: Nightingale faced resistance from military doctors, and Seacole faced racial discrimination. Correction: include these challenges in assessments of their work.
- Error: Treating Fenton's photographs as objective documentary evidence. Correction: Recognise that Fenton was officially commissioned and his images were selective, often avoiding scenes of death and suffering.
- Error: Assuming Russell's reports were immediately and universally accepted. Correction: Consider that public opinion was also shaped by other factors, and some initially doubted or ignored his accounts.
- Error: Claiming Fenton's photographs contributed to the fall of Aberdeen's government. Correction: Note that Aberdeen resigned in January 1855, before Fenton began taking his Crimean photographs in March 1855; it was Russell's reporting that influenced the government's collapse.